mass society
mass society, concept used to characterize modern society as homogenized but also disaggregated, because it is composed of atomized individuals. The term is often used pejoratively to denote a modern condition in which traditional forms of human association have broken down and been replaced by conformist or even totalitarian forms of collective behaviour.
The idea of mass society originated in the conservative reaction to the French Revolution (1787–99). For critics such as Hippolyte Taine, the real significance of the Revolution lay not in the constitutional changes it brought about but in the deep social upheaval it caused. For these thinkers, the Revolution undermined traditional institutions such as the Roman Catholic Church and thus weakened the social bonds that held French society together. The Revolution, they argued, had not established liberty but, on the contrary, had allowed collective despotism free rein by weakening intermediary associations and communities. According to critics ranging from Edmund Burke to Hannah Arendt, the Revolution was significant in part because it allowed ordinary people—the “swinish multitude,” in Burke’s view—to enter politics. What was most problematic, however, was the manner in which they entered politics: not through institutional channels but in the form of dissenting crowds or mobs. According to the French psychologist Gustave Le Bon, the empowerment of revolutionary crowds marked “the advent to power of the masses.” Crowd psychology, developed most famously by Le Bon, described the crowd as driven by pre-rational passions or impulses, acting as a single entity under the direction of a leader or blindly following its own whims. Crowd mentality was conceived as a contagious—and dangerous—form of popular enthusiasm. Crowd psychology influenced the later development of mass society theory. In fact, many social scientists used the concepts of crowd and mass interchangeably.
Similar themes emerged from the popularization of mass society theory in the mid-20th century. After World War II, social scientists and philosophers such as William Kornhauser and Erich Fromm turned to the concept of mass society in an effort to explain the conditions that made possible the transformation of the democratic Weimar Republic into the totalitarian Third Reich. Others, such as the American sociologists Robert Nisbet and C. Wright Mills, sought to diagnose the apathy, alienation, and general malaise they thought were afflicting modern societies.
Mass society theory was based on the thesis that modernity had severely eroded the social fabric. In mass society, individuals are at once subsumed in the social totality and estranged from one another. Individuals belonging to the mass are detached or atomized. This separation does not preserve the uniqueness of each individual but, on the contrary, contributes to a process of social homogenization or leveling. Thus, the condition of alienated individuals should not be confused with individual autonomy.
The same social processes that isolate people in a mass society—the division of labour, for instance—also make them highly dependent on others. Unlike in the communities of old, however, this dependence is highly impersonal. According to the German sociologist Theodor Geiger, technological advances created a society in which individuals are increasingly dependent on people they either do not know or do not care about. With the decline of intermediary institutions, the argument continued, individuals are deprived of their social ties and are subject to manipulation by the state through mass communication and mass mobilization. Theorists of mass society, however, disagreed on the principal cause of social disaggregation, some seeing it as rapid urbanization, others as booming population growth or an alienating model of industrial production (see mass production).
Theories of mass society can be distinguished in terms of the kind of threat they associate with it. One form of criticism, often labeled “aristocratic,” warns of the threat to elites and to high culture. Viewed from this perspective, mass society (or, more precisely, mass culture) is characterized by a growing uniformity in tastes and an egalitarian leveling that leaves no place for excellence. A different, though often connected, criticism, often labeled “democratic,” focuses on the threat to individual freedom. Critics of mass society can be found across the left–right ideological spectrum.
A minority of theorists, including the French sociologist Gabriel Tarde, embraced mass society as a means of bringing together people of different backgrounds, occupations, and classes and giving them a sense of belonging to a single group. Similarly, the American sociologist Edward Shils rejected standard criticisms of mass society as based on a caricature; indeed, he lauded mass society for its inclusiveness and its valorization of individuality. Mass society, Shils argued, means precisely that “the mass of the population has become incorporated into society” and that there is no longer any “outsider.”
At the end of the 20th century, theories of mass society were widely criticized and, in the eyes of many, discredited. A common critique was that they relied on a romantic and inaccurate representation of premodern communities. Moreover, the idea that individuals in modern societies are uprooted and atomized seemed to be refuted by studies showing the persistent relevance of interpersonal relationships, intermediary groups and associations, and social networks. The image of mass society as a unified totality was also contested by the relatively new pluralist school in American political science. Studying local dynamics of power, pluralists such as Robert A. Dahl argued that society is not a monolithic mass and it is not ruled by a united elite. Rather, it is shaped by the intervention of diverse groups representing a plurality of interests.
Although mass society theory has lost much of its appeal, some of its themes have been revived in work since the 1990s by so-called neo-Tocquevillian theorists such as Robert D. Putnam, who argued that democracy is threatened by the weakened state of civil society.