Early works in English in western Africa include a Liberian novel, Love in Ebony: A West African Romance, published in 1932 by Charles Cooper (pseudonym Varfelli Karlee), as well as such works of Ghanaian pulp literature as J. Benibengor Blay’s Emelia’s Promise and Fulfilment (1944). R.E. Obeng, a Ghanaian, wrote Eighteenpence (1941), an early work on the conflict between African and European cultures. Other early popular writers in Ghana include Asare Konadu, Efua Sutherland, and Kwesi Brew. The Nigerian Amos Tutuola wrote The Palm-Wine Drinkard and His Dead Palm-Wine Tapster in the Deads’ Town (1952), its construction revealing a clear linkage between the oral and literary traditions. In it the hero moves to Deads’ Town to bring his tapster back to the land of the living; the elixir that the hero brings back from the land of the dead, however, is an egg that is death-dealing as surely as it is life-giving. Tutuola is faithful to oral tradition, but he places the traditional journeying tale into a very contemporary framework.

Nigeria has been a font of creative writing in English, from the works of Chinua Achebe to those of Ben Okri. Wole Soyinka, winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1986, is known for his drama, poetry, and prose. His The Interpreters (1965) weaves stories from the contemporary world to the mythic and historical past, manipulating time so that in the end the very structure of the story is a comment on the lives of the several protagonists. Soyinka was a contributor to and coeditor of the influential journal Black Orpheus, founded in 1957 and containing the early works of poets such as Christopher Okigbo of Nigeria, Dennis Brutus and Alex La Guma of South Africa, and Tchicaya U Tam’si of Congo (Brazzaville). Another literary journal, The Horn, launched in 1958 by John Pepper Clark, provided additional opportunities for writers to have their works published. Transition, a literary journal begun in Uganda in 1960 by Rajat Neogi, was also a valuable outlet for many African writers.

Achebe’s Things Fall Apart (1958) is perhaps the best-known African novel of the 20th century. Its main character is Okonkwo, whose tragic and fatal flaw, his overweening ambition, wounds him. His frenzied desire to be anything but what his father was causes him to develop a warped view of his society, so that in the end that view becomes (thanks to seven humiliating years in exile) reality to him. When he returns, he cannot accept seeing his people in the throes of adapting to the intruding whites, and things fall apart for him: it is not the society he envisioned, and he takes his life. Things Fall Apart is a precolonial novel that ends with the coming of colonialism, which triggers Okonkwo’s demise. Okonkwo is in any case doomed because of his skewed vision. Flora Nwapa wrote the novel Efuru (1966), the story of a talented, brilliant, and beautiful woman who, living in a small community, is confined by tradition. A woman’s fundamental role, childbearing, is prescribed for her, and if she does not fulfill that role she suffers the negative criticism of members of her society. Borrowing a technique from the oral tradition, Nwapa injects the dimension of fantasy through the character of the goddess Uhamiri, who is a mythic counterpart to the real-life Efuru. In The Slave Girl (1977) the novelist Buchi Emecheta tells the story of Ojebeta, who, as she journeys from childhood to adulthood, moves not to freedom and independence but from one form of slavery to another. Okri blends fantasy and reality in his novel The Famished Road (1991; part of a trilogy that also includes Songs of Enchantment [1993] and Infinite Riches [1998]). In the novel, which addresses the reality of postcolonial Nigeria, Okri uses myth, the Yoruba abiku (“spirit child”), and other fantasy images to shift between preindependence and postindependence settings. The spiritual and real worlds are linked in the novel, the one a dimension of the other, in a narrative mode that African storytellers have been using for centuries.

In other parts of western Africa, Lenrie Peters of The Gambia and Syl Cheyney-Coker of Sierra Leone were among the most important 20th-century writers. The novelist Ebou Dibba and the poet Tijan M. Sallah were also from The Gambia. Cameroonian authors writing in English during the second half of the 20th century include Ba’bila Mutia, John S. Dinga, and Jedida Asheri. Writers in Ghana during the same period include Amma Darko, B. Kojo Laing, Kofi Awoonor, and Ayi Kwei Armah. In Fragments (1970) Armah tells of a youth, Baako, who returns from the United States to his Ghanaian family and is torn between the new demands of his home and the consequent subversion of a traditional past represented by the mythic Naana, his blind grandmother, who establishes a context for the tragic story Baako is experiencing.

The dominant writer to emerge from East Africa is the Kenyan Ngugi wa Thiong’o. In A Grain of Wheat (1967) he tells the story of Mugo, alone and alienated, farming after having played a role in the Mau Mau rebellion; though he has considered himself the Moses of his people, he has a terrible secret. As Mugo’s story unfolds, the novelist works into his narrative other stories, including those of Gikonyo, Mumbi, and Karanja, each of whom has an unsavoury past as well. Ngugi constructs the story around the proverb “Kikulacho ki nguoni mwako” (“That which bites you is in your own clothing”). Later in his career Ngugi, who spent many years in exile from Kenya, engaged many writers in a debate as to whether African writers should compose their works in European or African languages.

Other East African novelists include Okello Oculi, Grace Ogot, Peter K. Palangyo, and W.E. Mkufya. In Timothy Wangusa’s novel Upon This Mountain (1989), the character Mwambu climbs a mountain and comes of age. In two novels from Uganda a boy moves to manhood: Abyssinian Chronicles (2000), by Moses Isegawa, and The Season of Thomas Tebo (1986), by John Nagenda, the latter an allegorical novel in which a boy’s loss of innocence is tied to politics in that country. One of Africa’s greatest novelists is the Somali writer Nuruddin Farah, who wrote a trilogy composed of the novels Maps (1986), Gifts (1992), and Secrets (1998). Maps is the story of a youth, Askar, growing up in a Somalia divided by Ethiopia. With the mythic Misra, who becomes his surrogate mother, and by means of a geographical movement that occurs within a rich mixture of politics and sex, the boy seeks his identity, a quest that becomes linked to the identity of the land across which he moves.

From Malawi came such writers as Jack Mapanje, whose collection of poems Skipping Without Ropes (1998) reflects on his four years as a political prisoner, and David Rubadiri. Other writers from Southern Africa include Fwanyanga M. Mulikita and Dominic Mulaisho from Zambia and Berhane Mariam Sahle Sellassie, Daniachew Worku, and Tsegaye Gabre-Medhin from Ethiopia. Solomon M. Mutswairo, Dambudzo Marechera, Shimmer Chinodya, Chenjerai Hove, Yvonne Vera, Alexander Kanengoni, J. Nozipo Maraire, and Batisai Parwada are among Zimbabwe’s writers in English. Tsitsi Dangarembga wrote Nervous Conditions (1988), a story of two Shona girls, Tambudzai and Nyasha, both attempting to find their place in contemporary Zimbabwe. Nyasha has been abroad and wonders about the effect that Westernization has had on her and her family, while Tambudzai is longing to break out of her traditional world. Looming in the background are mythic figures, including Lucia, Tambudzai’s aunt.

Doris Lessing is a British writer who spent her early years in what is today Zimbabwe. Her novel The Grass Is Singing (1950) centres on Dick Turner and Mary Turner, a white couple attempting to become a part of the rural African landscape. Lessing depicts a stereotyped African character, Moses, a black servant, whose name gives him historical and religious resonance. He becomes dominant over the European Mary, manipulating her fears and love of him until in the end he destroys her. Lessing finds mythic fantasy dimensions in the Europeans, much as Mustafa Sa’eed does in the women of England in al-Ṭayyib Ṣāliḥ’s novel Season of Migration to the North (1966).

There is much writing in English by expatriates that is rooted in South Africa, from the poetry of Thomas Pringle to E.A. Kendall’s The English Boy at the Cape (1835), the novels of H. Rider Haggard and John Buchan, and Turning Wheels (1937), by Stuart Cloete. Olive Schreiner was the first major South African-born writer. Her novel The Story of an African Farm (1883) continues to have an international resonance. Pauline Smith wrote powerful short stories; her novel The Beadle (1926) deals largely with the experiences of Afrikaners in the Eastern Cape region. Sarah Gertrude Millin had an international audience with such works as God’s Stepchildren (1924). The short-lived literary review Voorslag (“Whiplash”), begun in 1926, published for wider audiences work by such poets as Roy Campbell, William Plomer, and Laurens van der Post.

A common subject in the works of the many South African authors writing in English during the 20th century is the racial segregation, codified as apartheid in 1948, that dominated the country until the early 1990s. In two early novels, Mine Boy (1946), by Peter Abrahams, and Cry, the Beloved Country (1948), by Alan Paton, black Africans go to Johannesburg and experience the terror of apartheid. In To Every Birth Its Blood (1981), Mongane Wally Serote tells the stories of Tsi Molope and Oupa Molope. Tsi looks to his past and wonders, “Where does a river begin to take its journey to the sea?” The world in which Oupa—the son of Mary, Tsi’s sister—lives postdates the Soweto Uprising of 1976, a time when resistance to apartheid took hold of a new generation and South Africa witnessed attacks and bombings. Because of their experiences with the police, the Molope family becomes more politicized. Serote wants the reader to see the human side of his characters—their vulnerabilities, their uncertainties—while he also wants to demonstrate that it is not an easy matter to make the revolutionary leap. A Ride on the Whirlwind (1981), by Sydney Sipho Sepamla, which is set in Soweto, exposes the fearful effects of apartheid.

The playwright Athol Fugard in 1982 produced his play “Master Harold”…and the Boys, the story of a white boy, Hally, in a restaurant in which two black African men, Willie Malopo and Sam Semela, are waiters. It is a story of a boy’s coming of age within the realities of the racist system of South Africa. As the story develops, Hally transfers his fear, love, and hate of his father to Sam, and in the end he treats Sam as he cannot treat his father. The result is to open anew the wounds of apartheid. The novel July’s People (1981), by Nadine Gordimer, who received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1991, takes place in an imagined postindependence South Africa. The story deals with the Smales, a white couple, and their relationship with July, their black servant. By means of flashbacks the Smales reconstruct their past, the world of a Johannesburg suburb during the apartheid period. There is a war, and Maureen Smale and Bamford Smale escape from their suburban home and go north, where these erstwhile liberals come to July’s rural home and learn, by their interactions with July and his family and friends, that they cannot move past their former relationship with their servant and cannot see him from any perspective but that of liberal, self-confident white overlords. That hopelessly compromised position is the impasse that Gordimer investigates in this novel. D.M. Zwelonke is the pseudonymous author of Robben Island (1973), a novel dealing with the political prison maintained by the South African government off the shores of Cape Town from the mid-1960s. It is the story of Bekimpi, an African political leader jailed at Robben Island, and it relates his dreams and fantasies, his despair and anger, and his torture and death.

J.M. Coetzee, winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2003, wrote Life and Times of Michael K (1983), a story with a blurred hero and an indistinct historical and geographical background. It describes a war that could be any war, a country that could be any country, a bureaucracy that could be any bureaucracy. Through it all, Michael K—a frail, nondescript, mute man of 30, born with a cleft lip—survives, not betraying his past, for he has no past, tied as he is to the unbroken continuity of history. So does Coetzee link apartheid to the ages. The novel becomes, in the end, an affirmation of humanity; the Earth is destroyed, a man is incarcerated, but he will return, crawling out of the dust of ruin, re-creating the Earth, making it grow and fructify.

Maru (1971), a novel by Bessie Head, tells a story about the liberation of the San people from ethnic and racial oppression and about the liberation of the Tswana people of Dilepe from their prejudices and hatreds. It is a story of a flawed world and the attempts of two mythic people, Maru and Margaret Cadmore, to restore it to its former perfection. It is also a love story—Margaret, the loathed Masarwa, opens the hearts of Moleka and Dikeledi—as well as a political story—Margaret animates Maru’s political vision with love and art. In the end, Maru is a realistic story with a mythic overlay in which oral and literary traditions are brought together.