Basque literature
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- literature
- Western literature
- Basque language
Basque literature, the body of work, both oral and written, in the Basque language (Euskara) produced in the Basque Country autonomous community in northern Spain and the Basque Country region in southwestern France.
Oral tradition
The history of Basque oral literature is most evident in the verses and melodies of the bertsolariak (“versifiers”; singular bertsolari). These compositions have been handed down through the generations and are still used today. Contemporary bertsolariak also often extemporize their own verses while performing. At the turn of the 21st century, txapelketak (“competitions”) between bertsolariak attracted live audiences and were usually broadcast on radio and television.
Another surviving form of oral literature is the phastuala, also referred to as a pastorale, a musical play presented by amateurs from groups of villages. Originally, the phastuala’s subject matter was religious, with good pitted against evil, and its purpose was didactic. Phastualas continued to be performed into the 21st century, though modern subject matter focused largely on historical subjects rather than moral ones.
Written literature
The first 300 years
As a result of the Council of Trent (1545–63) and the Counter-Reformation, Roman Catholic priests began writing catechisms, sermons, and other materials in Basque. Clerics constituted the vast majority of Basque-language writers from the 16th through the 19th century, and religious topics dominated Basque literature during its first 300 years. The first book published in Basque was a collection of poems composed by Bernat Dechepare (also spelled Detxepare), a parish priest; it was published under a Latin title, Linguae vasconum primitiae (1545; “First Fruits of the Basque Language”). In 1571 the New Testament was published in Basque for the first time. The translation had been commissioned by the queen of Navarre, Jeanne d’Albret (see Albret family), after her conversion in 1560 to Calvinism, and it was carried out by Ioannes Leizarraga, a fellow convert and a government minister. The Roman Catholic priest Pedro de Axular wrote Gero (1643; “Later”), a religious work aimed at Christians who put off caring for their souls until the last possible moment; it is among the best-known works of Basque literature. The Basque language became a central subject of Basque literature between the 16th and the 19th centuries, with writers attempting to prove Basque just as beautiful and as useful as other languages.
The 20th and 21st centuries
By the 20th century, a secular literature had begun to develop. Txomin Agirre (Spanish: Domingo de Aguirre) is often considered the first Basque novelist. He published novels of manners early in the 20th century that were filled with long arguments claiming to prove the moral superiority of life in the countryside over that in the city. The characters in these novels showed little or no development. Kresala (1906; “Sea Water”), a novel about the lives of mariners, is his most realistic and most vigorous work. The novel Garoa (1912; “The Fern”), originally published in 1907 in the journal Revista Internacional de los Estudios Vascos, describes the life of a rural patriarch.
Poetry began to evolve in the years before the Spanish Civil War (1936–39). Esteban Urkiaga (Spanish: Esteban de Urquiaga), who published under the pseudonym Lauaxeta, and Jose Mari Agirre (Spanish: José María de Aguirre), whose pseudonym was Lizardi, published their poetry bilingually to reach Spanish as well as Basque readers. Lauaxeta’s collection Bide barrijak (1931; “New Paths”) focuses on a Basque fishing village and shows the influence of the Symbolist movement and Parnassianism. Lizardi’s collection Biotz-begietan (1932; “In the Eyes of the Heart”) displayed a spartan lyricism that was new to Basque poetry.
Literary production in all genres ceased during the Civil War, and very little was published in Basque during the 1940s and ’50s, owing in large part to the monolingualism that Gen. Francisco Franco imposed on Spain. One noteworthy exception was Salbatore Mitxelena’s epic poem Arantzazu: Euskal-sinismenaren (1949; “Arantzazu: Poem of the Basque Christian Faith”). Nevertheless, during this period the Euskaltzaindia (Royal Academy of the Basque Language), which was founded in 1919, continued to work to create a unified written language, now known as Euskara Batua (“Unified Basque”). Members of the academy drew vocabulary from all Basque dialects and tried to include characteristics from each as they standardized spelling and modified verb forms.
Basque novels and poetry began to appear again in the late 1950s. Themes drawn from existentialism appeared in novels and short stories, many of which adopted the techniques of the French nouveau roman (New Novel) or employed magic realism. José Luis Alvarez Enparanza (also spelled Emparantza), who used the pseudonym Txillardegi, wrote lyrical novels of existential reflection. In his Leturiaren egunkari ezkutua (1957; “Leturia’s Secret Diary”; Eng. trans. Leturia) the protagonist’s inner turmoil reflects life in the Basque Country at that time. Ramón Saizarbitoria, who is sometimes said to have created the modern Basque novel, used an innovative narrative style. He also addressed such issues as abortion (Egunero hasten delako [1969; “Because It Begins Every Day”]) and the tensions between Basque nationalists and the Spanish police (100 metro [1976; 100 Meter]); the latter relates the last minutes of a man’s life as he is hunted down and killed. His Rossetti-ren obsesioa (2001; Rossetti’s Obsession) explores the nature of love and desire.
Anjel Lertxundi’s early story collection Hunik arrats artean (1970; “From Now Until Sundown”) shows the influence of Italian Neorealism and Latin American storytelling. His novel Hamaseigarrenean, aidanez (1983; “Apparently, the Sixteenth Time”) resembles detective fiction. Lertxundi was a prolific writer and continued publishing through the turn of the 21st century with works such as the realist novel Zorion perfektua (2001; Perfect Happiness). Some of the novels he wrote in the late 1990s, including Azkenaz beste (1996; “Another Ending”), melded magic realism with elements of myth and science fiction.
Laura Mintegi represents a politically involved generation that often chose to write solely in Basque—rather than in both Basque and Spanish, as many other Basque writers did—even though this limited the size of its readership. After publishing a short-story collection in 1983, she went on to write several novels, including Nerea eta biok (1994; Nerea and I), a lyrical examination of the feelings of a professional woman who is also a single mother as she exchanges letters with a female Basque political prisoner.
Poetry of the second half of the 20th century was shaped largely by oral tradition and often resembled written versions of the oral verses created by the bertsolariak. Nicolás Ormaechea, known as Orixe, wrote the epic poem Euskaldunak (1950; “The Basques”); he based its style on poetry of the oral tradition, which allowed its verses to be sung. Gabriel Aresti incorporated elements of older Basque poetry while also addressing socialist themes. By veering away from such predecessors as Orixe, Lizardi, and Lauaxeta, however, Aresti’s work gave new impetus to Basque poetry. His collection Harri eta herri (1964; “Stone and People”) contains his most famous poem, “Nire aitaren etxea” (“My father’s house”).
In the French Basque Country in the second half of the 20th century, Jon Mirande broke taboos in both his poetry and his prose. His novel Haur besoetakoa (1970; “The Godchild”), for example, explored pedophilia through its depiction of the illicit relationship between a man and his goddaughter. The prolific French-born poet and novelist Itxaro Borda introduced the female detective Amaia Ezpeldoi in Bakean utzi arte (1994; “Until Left in Peace”).
With the approval of the Spanish constitution in 1978, minority languages in Spain were given equal status with Spanish within their home provinces. Basque publishing flourished in the early 1980s, and by the later part of the decade and the early ’90s the vast majority of Basque-language publishing was occurring in the Spanish Basque Country. The resulting literature, especially novels, often subordinated aesthetic considerations to the pedagogical goal of strengthening and maintaining the Basque language, which had lost many speakers during the decades of its suppression by Franco. Writers began creating works that would be accessible to those learning the language, with some of the most esteemed Basque authors turning to children’s literature. Concurrently, writers began to focus on entertaining their readers by way of popular fiction, although only the detective novel—which emerged as early as the 1950s—registered a strong presence in Basque literature.
Another phenomenon resulting in part from the more relaxed political atmosphere and the success of Basque publishing ventures was the increasing number of women writers. Prior to the final decades of the 20th century, women constituted fewer than one-fifth of all Basque writers, and their works were not widely circulated. Except for a token handful—Bizenta Mogel (Spanish: Vicenta Antonia Moguel) in the 19th century and Julene Azpeitia, Madeleine de Jauréguiberry, and Tene Mujika in the 20th century—they were also largely ignored by literary historians. The proportion of women writers at the turn of the 21st century was significantly higher and included, in addition to Mintegi and Borda, the poet and short-story writer Amaia Lasa, the short-story writer Arantxa Iturbe, and Mariasun Landa, who wrote children’s literature. Arantxa Urretavizcaya (also spelled Urretabizkaia), a versatile writer whose stream-of-consciousness novella Zergatik, panpox? (1979; “Why, Darling?”) was written from a female perspective, also achieved wide critical acclaim.
At the beginning of the 21st century, the best-known Basque author was Bernardo Atxaga (pseudonym of José Irazu Garmendia), whose breakthrough novel was Obabakoak (1988; “The People of Obaba”; Eng. trans. Obabakoak: A Novel). Landa was second only to Atxaga as the Basque writer most often translated. Her best-known works of children’s literature are Txan fantasma (1992; Eng. trans. Karmentxu and the Little Ghost) and Errusika (1988; Eng. trans. The Dancing Flea).
Linda White