After the first flush of enthusiasm for Augustan ideals of national regeneration, literature paid the price of political patronage. It became subtly sterilized; and Ovid was but the first of many writers actually suppressed or inhibited by fear. Only Tacitus and Juvenal, writing under comparatively tolerant emperors, turned emotions pent up under Domitian’s reign of terror into the driving force of great literature. Late Augustans such as Livy already sensed that Rome had passed its summit. Yet the title of Silver Age is not undeserved by a period that produced, in addition to Tacitus and Juvenal, the two Senecas, Lucan, Persius, the two Plinys, Quintilian, Petronius, Statius, Martial, and, of lesser stature, Manilius, Valerius Flaccus, Silius Italicus, and Suetonius.

Later writers

The decentralization of the empire under Hadrian and the Antonines weakened the Roman pride and passion for liberty. Romans began again to write in Greek as well as Latin. The “new sophistic” movement in Greece affected the “novel poets” such as Florus. An effete culture devoted itself to philology, archaism, and preciosity. After Juvenal, 250 years elapsed before Ausonius of Bordeaux (4th century ad) and the last of the true classics, Claudian (flourished about 400), appeared. The anonymous Pervigilium Veneris (“Vigil of Venus”), of uncertain date, presages the Middle Ages in its vitality and touch of stressed metre. Ausonius, though in the pagan literary tradition, was a Christian and contemporary with a truly original Christian poet, the Spaniard Prudentius. Henceforward, Christian literature overlaps pagan and generally surpasses it.

In prose these centuries have somewhat more to boast, though the greatest work by a Roman was written in Greek, the Meditations of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. Elocutio novella, a blend of archaisms and colloquial speech, is seen to best advantage in Apuleius (born about 125). Other writers of note were Aulus Gellius and Macrobius. The 4th century ad was the age of the grammarians and commentators, but in prose some of the most interesting work is again Christian.

Comedy

Roman comedy was based on the New Comedy fashionable in Greece, whose classic representative was Menander. But whereas this was imitation of life to the Greeks, to the Romans it was escape to fantasy and literary convention. Livius’ successor, Naevius, who developed this “drama in Greek cloak” (fabula palliata), may have been the first to introduce recitative and song, thereby increasing its unreality. But he slipped in details of Roman life and outspoken criticisms of powerful men. His imprisonment warned comedy off topical references, but the Roman audience became alert in applying ancient lines to modern situations and in demonstrating their feelings by appropriate clamour.

Unlike his predecessors, Plautus specialized, writing only comedy involving high spirits, oaths, linguistic play, slapstick humour, music, and skillful adaptation of rhythm to subject matter. Some of his plays can be thought of almost as comic opera. Part of the humour consisted in the sudden intrusion of Roman things into this conventional Greek world. “The Plautine in Plautus” consists in pervasive qualities rather than supposed innovations of plot or technique.

As Greek influence on Roman culture increased, Roman drama became more dependent on Greek models. Terence’s comedy was very different from Plautus’. Singing almost disappeared from his plays, and recitative was less prominent. From Menander he learned to exhibit refinements of psychology and to construct ingenious plots; but he lacked comic force. His pride was refined language—the avoidance of vulgarity, obscurity, or slang. His characters were less differentiated in speech than those of Plautus, but they talk with an elegant charm. The society Terence portrayed was more sensitive than that of Plautine comedy; lovers tended to be loyal and sons obedient. His historical significance has been enhanced by the loss of nearly all of Menander’s work.

Though often revived, plays modeled on Greek drama were rarely written after Terence. The Ciceronian was the great age of acting, and in 55 bc Pompey gave Rome a permanent theatre. Plays having an Italian setting came into vogue, their framework being Greek New Comedy but their subject Roman society. A native form of farce was also revived. Under Julius Caesar, this yielded in popularity to verse mime of Greek origin that was realistic, often obscene, and full of quotable apothegms. Finally, when mime gave rise to the dumb show of the pantomimus with choral accompaniment and when exotic spectacles had become the rage, Roman comedy faded out.

Tragedy

Livius introduced both Greek tragedy (fabula crepidata, “buskined”) and comedy to Latin. He was followed by Naevius and Ennius, who loved Euripides. Pacuvius, probably a greater tragedian, liked Sophocles and heightened tragic diction even more than Ennius. His successor, Accius, was more rhetorical and impetuous. The fragments of these poets betoken grandeur in “the high Roman fashion,” but they also have a certain ruggedness. They did not always deal in Greek mythology: occasionally they exploited Roman legend or even recent history. The Roman chorus, unlike the Greek, performed on stage and was inextricably involved in the action.

Classical tragedy was seldom composed after Accius, though its plays were constantly revived. Writing plays, once a function of slaves and freedmen, became a pastime of aristocratic dilettantes. Such writers had commonly no thought of production: post-Augustan drama was for reading. The extant tragedies of the younger Seneca probably were not written for public performance. They are melodramas of horror and violence, marked by sensational pseudo-realism and rhetorical cleverness. Characterization is crude, and philosophical moralizing obtrusive. Yet Seneca was a model for 16th- and early 17th-century tragedy, especially in France, and influenced English revenge tragedy.