Early 20th-century developments

Ballroom dances and dance events were transformed monumentally—and indeed, democratized—with the social shifts of the early 20th century. Dances such as one-steps, two-steps, hesitations, and trots (including the fox-trot)—all so named because of their generally faster and more strongly syncopated (with accents placed on normally weak beats) musical style—could be learned by the public at large from teachers, manuals, or general-interest newspaper and magazine columns. In this new atmosphere of accessibility, two subcategories developed: professional exhibition ballroom dancing, in which a couple was paid to demonstrate in front of a paying audience, and competitive ballroom dance, in which amateur couples performed within strict regulations for prizes or titles.

Exhibition ballroom dancers were marketed not only as performers but also as teachers and choreographers. Championed by Vernon and Irene Castle (with their manager Elisabeth Marbury), these professional duos were promoted through photographs, films, and their endorsement of sheet music and recordings. Rival teams established reputations for performing exotic dances, such as the Argentine or Parisian tangos or the Brazilian maxixe. Inspired by the professional teams, amateur couples entered local competitions.

Nonprofessional ballroom dance, meanwhile, extended its reach beyond exclusive ballrooms into public cabarets, roof gardens, and open-air dance halls, further democratizing the tradition. Some members of elite society embraced this expansion of the tradition. Ann Morgan (daughter of financier J.P. Morgan) and Elisabeth Marbury, for instance, sponsored events for young working women that used social dance to promote upward assimilation. However, the further association of these and other venues with the consumption of alcoholic beverages meant that ballroom dance was severely affected by prohibition in the United States in the 1920s and early ’30s. During this era the more solidly established exhibition dance teams focused on vaudeville or film, or they moved to Europe.

Also during this era, the line distinguishing ballroom dance from other sorts of social dance was further (albeit temporarily) blurred, as the primary market for promoting dances moved to the theatre. Ballroom dance events were integrated into the plots of such popular musicals as No, No, Nanette (1925) and Good News (1927) and into films about contemporary life, such as Nice People (1922) and Our Dancing Daughters (1928). Moreover, during this time the enormous influence of African American social dance was acknowledged in the ballroom. Steps from the Charleston—introduced in the African American musical Runnin’ Wild (1923, dance direction by Elida Webb)—moved into the ballroom repertoire, although only a short part of the dance was performed by partners holding hands.

In the 1920s, band arrangements of fox-trots and other ballroom dance music were disseminated through music publishing, recording, and newly networked radio broadcasts. Such exposure ultimately helped establish those dances that have remained standard ballroom fare into the 21st century. Similarly, dance instruction reached an ever-expanding market through franchised studios, such as those of Arthur Murray.

With the end of prohibition in 1933, ballroom and exhibition ballroom dances further solidified their links with American social life, popular entertainment, and the music industry. The same range of dances was now seen both in public settings and at invitational events, such as country club dances, as well as in popular film sequences set at college dances and country clubs. Popular African American social dances of the first half of the 20th century, such as the lindy (or lindy hop), the stomp, and swing dancing, were drawn into the ballroom repertoire, albeit in a somewhat less exuberant form. A few of the best-known public venues for these dances, such as the Savoy and Audubon ballrooms in New York City’s Harlem district, survived well into the mid-20th century, often hosting sponsored competitions, such as the preliminary rounds of the Harvest Moon Ball at Madison Square Garden. Meanwhile, the popularity of Caribbean and South American songs and ensembles and the development of Afro-Cuban jazz (early Latin jazz) supported a Latin dance craze, bringing renewed popularity in the 1930s to exhibition teams performing rumba, acrobatic adagio, and slow-dance styles. These professional dance teams also helped promote the Cuban mambo and cha-cha.

Exhibition and competitive ballroom dance since the mid-20th century

In the second half of the 20th century, social dance genres followed the entertainment industries’ pursuit of a youthful audience. Accordingly, popular rock-and-roll dances (such as the twist), disco dances (such as the hustle), and break dancing were all in turn publicized, dramatized, and commoditized within the ballroom dance context. Older forms of ballroom dance, particularly those derived from 19th-century models, persisted through their association with new sorts of social rituals, most notably those connected with fund-raising. These events, generally called cotillions or debutante balls, served both to raise money for worthy causes and to introduce young people into society. Early ballroom dance styles also continued to be practiced in traditional family settings, such as wedding receptions and Mexican quinceañera celebrations, which mark a girl’s entry into adulthood.

Exhibition ballroom dance remained popular in Britain and continental Europe throughout the 20th century, particularly in semi-invitational settings, such as resorts and hotels. Especially after the 1960s, ballroom dance gained a strong following in Asia. Popular interest and scholarly research, moreover, brought new appreciation to both ballroom and social dance as valuable reflections and embodiments of a community’s social values. Meanwhile, the regulations governing competitive ballroom dance became more exact as dance teachers switched their focus from inventing new dances to codifying existing ones. Those “official” versions of fox-trots, waltzes, and tangos—all with specified steps, postures, and head positions—have been maintained in European televised competitions and to some degree in Olympic figure skating (specifically in ice dancing).

In the early 21st century, an alternative form of competitive ballroom dance thrived in Europe, North America, and South America in television shows such as Dancing with the Stars. These elimination series focused largely on the personalities of the contestants, with individualization earning more points than strict adherence to the rules. Once an expression of elite society, ballroom dance has continued to expand its appeal and adapt its approach in response to the ever-changing aesthetics of contemporary culture.