- Also called:
- motion picture or movie
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Motion pictures were the most important narrative art form of the 20th century, having taken on the functions served earlier by dime novels, serial novels, staged melodramas, wax museum displays, epic paintings, and professional storytelling. These earlier forms continued into the century and were supplemented by comic books, radio, and television, but it is the motion picture that came to dominate them all. Still, most films can be seen as descendants and variants of types of stories and storytelling that predated the invention of the cinema.
Always plagued by the need for a constant flow of new products to satisfy patrons returning to the movies week after week, film companies quickly began to rely on genres to help regularize production and to help presell their motion pictures. A studio that decided to make half a dozen police thrillers in one year could organize its production schedule efficiently, saving time and money by reusing sets, costumes, and other items. More important, the studio could assign the same personnel to certain genres, allowing writers, directors, technical crews, and actors to establish a routine that often resulted in quicker and improved filmmaking from work to work. In addition, it was found that the initial success of a new film was frequently enhanced by the popularity of previous films in the same genre. Viewers knew, to a great extent, what to expect from a genre film; they recognized the stars, or at least the characters, in it, and they were sensitive to music, lighting, and plot devices because of long familiarity with the type of story being portrayed.
Although the movies have created their own genres, most have been derived from prototypes in the other arts, especially literature. The western, for example, has important precursors in popular painting, Wild West shows, and pulp fiction. It does not matter, however, if audiences are unfamiliar with these other forms; viewers quickly learn the rules of the genre, acquiring the ability to recognize the hero from costuming, to anticipate the final shoot-out, and so forth. Genres epitomize the dilemma of the fiction film in that they promise to deliver to a waiting audience something that is similar to what that audience has enjoyed in the past and yet something that is also quite new and different. Often the most highly acclaimed films are those that invoke the conventions of a genre only to break them down in the pursuit of ideas and visions never attained in that form before. Examples include John Ford’s western The Searchers (1956), the comedies of Preston Sturges, Baz Luhrmann’s musical Moulin Rouge! (2001), Arthur Penn’s gangster film Bonnie and Clyde (1967), Robert Altman’s comedy M*A*S*H (1970), and Quentin Tarantino’s western The Hateful Eight (2015).
Well-formed genres typically characterize the production of highly centralized studio systems such as those of Hollywood, Japan, or India. They play a lesser role in countries where individual producers dominate. In France, for example, most films are treated as single-effort productions, a practice that can permit far more revolutionary films to develop, as was seen during the French New Wave of the late 1950s and early ’60s. François Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Claude Chabrol, Éric Rohmer, and other New Wave directors utterly overturned standards of storytelling and visualization to the delight of an international audience tired of old formulas. These directors were not oblivious to genres; rather, they played with conventions, mixing comedy and pathos, suspense and spectacle. Their highly personal films confirmed the importance of genre to the fictional mode.
Hollywood genres
Most genres can be defined by their subject matter or setting—e.g., the western, the gangster film, the police thriller, the science-fiction film, or the social problem film. Others are classified according to the type of narrative form they exhibit. The musical, for example, often has a show business setting or theme, but it is not so narrowly restricted; it can be about almost any subject. The melodrama also encompasses many subjects and styles; it has even been combined with other genres—for example, with the western in Rancho Notorious (1952) and with the problem film in Ordinary People (1980).
The evolution of genres can be used to trace the history of Hollywood cinema and American popular culture. Different genres have achieved popular success in different periods. Some, termed “cycles,” are short-lived (e.g., the disaster cycle of the 1970s, which included Earthquake [1974] and The Towering Inferno [1974]), but even lasting genres go through phases of popularity. The western, for example, was well established as a genre by the 1920s. It was particularly strong in the late 1940s and early ’50s but not during the ’30s. It resurged in the 1960s but subsided later in the ’70s. Musicals came into prominence with the introduction of sound. They remained important until the late 1960s, when a number of expensive, overblown productions flooded theatres and met financial failure. Most film historians were ready to proclaim the genre dead, but several astounding successes in the late 1970s and early ’80s caused them to revise their views.
The internal mutation of a genre reflects the changing tastes and mores of the public. The modern musical (Cabaret [1972]; All That Jazz [1979]; Fame [1980]; Chicago [2002]; La La Land [2016]) is typically more socially conscious and more serious than the colourful, vividly stylized, self-conscious musicals of the 1940s and ’50s (Singin’ in the Rain [1952]; The Band Wagon [1953]), which in turn are derived from, but upend, such early escapist masterpieces as 42nd Street (1933) and Top Hat (1935). Each phase can be seen as a response to the prevailing political, social, and economic conditions of its time.
The western is the genre most scrutinized for this evolution. Its classical phase (Stagecoach [1939]) mutated after World War II into a variant capable of dealing with social problems (High Noon [1952]) or with tortured heroes (Winchester 73 [1950]). In the 1960s the Italian “spaghetti western” announced a decadent phase. The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly (1966) inverted character roles and culminated in a three-man gunfight. The western diminished in popularity during the last decades of the 20th century. However, significant contributions to the genre were made during that time, most notably by actor-director Clint Eastwood (Outlaw Josey Wales [1976]; Unforgiven [1992]). Audiences applauded both the attenuated spectacle of these films and their ironic perversion of the codes operating in the standard genre. Some scholars, citing the original Star Wars trilogy (1977, 1980, 1983) as an example, have argued that in the 1970s the mutation went so far as to leap across the boundary of subject matter toward science fiction. Although some science-fiction films may share properties with the western, it is unlikely that the production or reception of such films was consciously affected by westerns. Genres with strong, well-defined iconographies rarely consciously influence or combine with one another, even when they are clearly related. When Hollywood remade Kurosawa’s Seven Samurai (1954) into the western The Magnificent Seven (1960), production personnel and audiences were far more conscious of the new film’s relationship to previous westerns than of its similarities to Japanese samurai pictures.