East Asian carving

Ivory carving is one of China’s oldest arts, and examples of skillfully carved ivory have been found in the tombs of the Shang dynasty (c. 16th century–1046 bce) kings; these pieces are so well designed and executed that they suggest a long previous development, probably going back to prehistoric times. In ancient China elephants still roamed the forests of the Huang He (Yellow River) region, so that the supply of ivory was close at hand. At the court of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 bce) it became fashionable for princes and high officials to carry narrow memorandum tablets of ivory. Called hu, these were generally worn as girdle pendants. In the Han dynasty (206 bce–220 ce) these ivory tablets came to be considered as marks of rank and were required for formal dress. Later, during the Tang dynasty (618–907) and the Song dynasty (960–1279), these tablets were greatly elongated and were carried by court officials as a kind of sceptre as well as a writing surface for memoranda. The tablets continued to be carried as a mark of high court rank until the fall of the Ming dynasty in the 17th century. Some ivory figurines have also survived from these periods in Chinese history. Other carvings consist of flat ivory pieces that were painted or stained a dark colour and then carved to form intricate patterns of birds and animals or geometric figures, the carvings finally being stained with other colours or left plain.

By Song dynasty times the elephants had been driven far into the wilderness areas of southwest China (modern Yunnan), which then belonged to another nation, the kingdom of Nanzhao. Accordingly, new sources of ivory were sought overseas, and at this time the first African elephant tusks were brought from Zanzibar to China by Arab traders. The new nationalistic-minded Ming dynasty, after overthrowing the Mongol Yuan dynasty, proceeded in the 14th century to revive the art of ivory carving, and a renaissance of fine craftsmanship resulted. The Ming ivory carvings that have survived are mostly handsomely carved figures, not stained or painted but having the natural colouring of ivory. The tradition of fine Ming carving seems to have carried over into the first half of the Qing dynasty (1644–1912). The art of colouring ivory was revived at this time, and both stains and lacquers were used to enhance the delicately carved figures that many connoisseurs have considered the finest productions of the Chinese carvers’ art. Workshops in Beijing and Guangzhou (Canton) were the main centres of ivory carving, producing figures, singly or in groups; cylindrical brush boxes, table screens, and armrests and other desk fittings carved in low and high relief; sceptres; snuff bottles, snuff dishes, and accessories for opium smoking; stands for fine porcelains; and perfume boxes, mirror cases, and other toilet articles for court ladies. Shanghai workshops produced such utilitarian objects as chopsticks, Mah-Jongg sets, combs, and seals.

Beijing and Guangzhou continued to be centres for the finest Chinese ivory carving until after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912. In subsequent years the output declined, resulting from the lack of Imperial patronage. From that time on, the industry was devoted chiefly to supplying foreign residents and tourists with ivory canes, card cases, and other objects. Because these buyers were not discriminating, the quality, which had been declining after the mid-19th century, deteriorated at an accelerating pace.

It is not possible to claim any great antiquity for ivory carving in Japan. Although they learned the art rather late, the Japanese ivory carvers of the Tokugawa period (1603–1867) quickly developed an astonishing mastery of this medium and created many miniature works of art that still excite admiration. Ivory was used in Japan to produce such objects as the plectrum for plucking the strings of the samisen and the ends of the rollers for traditional scroll paintings. Its major artistic use, however, was for the togglelike pieces called netsuke, which formed an indispensable item of men’s costumes in the Tokugawa period. Netsuke were used to fasten the medicine box (inro) and pipe and tobacco pouches to a man’s sash. They were often delicate and exquisitely carved miniature figures, landscapes, or animals. With the end of the Tokugawa regime in 1867, new customs of dress, and the introduction of the cigarette shortly after, netsuke became obsolete. Their former carvers, like the Chinese, gradually turned to making things for foreign residents and tourists, producing jewel boxes, chests, card cases, chess pieces, buttons, brooches, and other objects to appeal to Victorian tastes. By about 1900, endless repetition and the use of machine tools for mass production had destroyed the remaining elements of the art. From that time on, most Japanese ivory carving has been directed toward the copying of old netsuke, complete with signatures of dead artists, and the forging of Chinese ivory antiquities.

Other carving traditions

From the time of Muhammad or before, ivory was used extensively in the Middle East and in Muslim-ruled Spain to decorate furniture, doors, caskets, and minbars (pulpits). The decoration consisted of geometric and plant-form arabesques, sometimes inhabited by birds and animals.

Ivory was always plentiful in India, but few carved ivory pieces have survived to illustrate the art during most of the 4,000 years it has been practiced there. Some Hindu and Buddhist figures carved in the round are extant, along with little boxes and some reliefs.

The early Inuit, or Eskimo, of northern North America lacked most useful metals, and so they fashioned the ivory from walrus tusks and buried mammoth tusks into a variety of utilitarian objects, such as bucket handles, bow drills, pipes, harpoon shafts, and needle cases. They etched these objects with geometric or gracefully curving patterns of fine lines. Another type of ivory carving is that of scrimshaw, which is the decoration of whales’ teeth or walrus tusks with various designs and images, carried out by whalers in the United States during the 19th century.