- Also called:
- motion picture or movie
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Film has been defined as a series of images of space that are arranged in time. The time of film language is quite different from that of reality and that conveyed by the other arts, such as drama and literature. Movement on the screen is produced by showing the spectator 24 frames, or still photographs, with dark intervals between them, every second. The movement seems to be at the same rate as that of ordinary life only if the pictures are taken and shown at the same speed.
Slow motion may be achieved either by speeding up the camera or by slowing down the projector, and accelerated motion is obtained in the opposite way. In common practice, the speed of the projector is constant, and the speed of the camera is varied to achieve these effects. Like extremes of scale, extremes of speed—such as in accelerated-motion films of plant growth or slow-motion films of bullets, explosions, or materials being broken—are often of less interest to the art of motion pictures than to science. Moderate slow motion has been used, however, to give a mythic or legendary quality to scenes of destruction and violence, as in Arthur Penn’s Bonnie and Clyde (1967), the films of Sam Peckinpah, and Christopher Nolan’s Inception (2010). It can also be used to express dreams or ecstasy, while accelerated motion is often very effective in comedy. The cinema can give the illusion of reversing time, by showing events happening backward, or of holding time still, by showing the same image again and again.
Time conventions
Despite the possibilities for manipulating it, the time presented in a single shot of film is ordinarily the time of the real world. From shot to shot, however, the time is presented according to certain conventions. In most motion pictures, the story may be assumed to be presented in chronological order and in real time except when certain conventions are invoked, such as ellipsis, repetition for emphasis, flashbacks, or dream sequences.
The narrative may be advanced with immense speed and economy simply by the omission, or ellipsis, of what is not essential. A straight cut may be used between a shot of a girl dressing for a ball and a shot of her at the ball itself. To show a lapse of years, however, it may be necessary to fade one shot slowly from the screen and fade the next in or to use a dissolve, or mix, which shows both shots superimposed as one supersedes the other.
To emphasize important scenes of short duration, repetition is an effective device. Such a scene may be shown from different angles or from a distance and then close up, and it may occupy much more time on the screen than would the actual event. By emphasizing what is important and eliminating the rest, a motion picture can give the illusion of covering a lifetime in only 90 minutes.
A flashback is an interruption of the actual chronology of a story to relate a significant event of an earlier time. The flash-forward, a device used much less, interjects future events in the same way. These devices require special optical effects, such as fades, dissolves, or irising, to stress the break in continuity. The break can also be stressed by the use of a melody associated with the past or by an unusual camera movement, as well as by the more obvious devices of using noticeably different period styles in the settings or having the actors made up to look much older or younger.
A thought or dream sequence requires similar emphasis on the departure from chronology of real time. Nearly all of La Rivière du Hibou (1962), a prizewinning French short film adapted from Ambrose Bierce’s 1891 short story “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge,” consists of the fleeting last thoughts of a man about to be hanged. By not indicating a break between the actual events of the hanging and the fantasy of the condemned man, the film deceives the audience, until the very end, into thinking he is making an escape.
Tempo
The tempo or pace that an audience senses in a film may be influenced in three ways: by the actual speed and rhythm of movement and cuts within the film, by the accompanying music, and by the content of the story. For most people, time seems to pass quickly during moments of happiness, excitement, or exhilaration and slowly during sadness or boredom. In films, it is possible to reverse this apparent cause-and-effect relationship and to induce a feeling of happiness, excitement, or exhilaration by making the picture seem to move quickly. Means of accomplishing this include lively music, quick cutting, and fast action. Conversely, a sense of sadness or boredom can be induced by solemn music or immobility of the images.
A feeling of suspense is unusual in combining excitement with a sense that time is passing slowly. Much of the suspense depends upon the audience’s awareness of a danger unknown to the characters in the film. Conversely, the sense of serenity and wisdom achieved by directors such as India’s Satyajit Ray or Japan’s Ozu Yasujirō emanates from the deliberateness with which they pace even the most dramatic of actions.
Tempo is not necessarily related to the actual length of a motion picture. A poorly made short film may seem interminable, for example, whereas a three-and-a-half-hour masterpiece, such as D.W. Griffith’s Intolerance (1916), can command and sustain a viewer’s full attention.
Sound
Mechanical reproduction of sound was developed as early as the first motion pictures, but the problems of amplifying sound sufficiently for an audience and synchronizing it with the film image were not solved until the late 1920s. Although sound attracted crowds to the cinema to hear the new miracle, the gains were not immediately apparent. The new “talkies,” mostly poor imitations of theatrical plays, fell short of the artistic levels of the best silent films. Sound equipment was cumbersome and imperfect. The once-mobile camera of the silent film lost its freedom, and the editing of film tied to a sound track became stodgy and slow.
Sound also resulted in great advantages, however. The cumbersome captions of the silent film could be dropped; certain strained methods of showing sound in pictures, such as shots of factory whistles, guns firing, or rows of clapping hands, became unnecessary. Music could be composed for a film and enjoyed in the humblest as well as the grandest cinema. Just as the visual image in the frame of a motion picture was elevated from the profusion of nature and could be seen fresh, so could sound be isolated for artistic purposes—the screech of automobile tires, the ticking of a watch, the baying of hounds, the whinny of a horse. The dramatic effect of sound could be tremendous. The rushing, crackling sound of a great fire in the last scene of Robert Bresson’s Le Procès de Jeanne d’Arc (1962; Trial of Joan of Arc) is as terrifying as any visual effect could be. In Hitchcock’s Torn Curtain (1966) there is a desperate struggle in the kitchen of a lonely farmhouse; as the doomed man’s head is held in an oven and his hands (the only thing in the picture) convulsively twitch, the sound of hissing gas dominates the scene. The introduction of sound also made it possible to use silence with a dramatic effect that can be more telling than either words or music.
Like images, sounds can be used to represent subjective thoughts, indicating not what the character is saying but what that character is thinking. For example, in Hitchcock’s Blackmail (1929), the first English sound film, the word knife is repeated in the thoughts of a frightened girl who thinks that she has committed a murder.
In terms of montage, sound, dialogue, and music are used in combination not only with one another but also with the visual image. They can overlap and vary in intensity in a flexible and complex pattern. The finished sound track may involve mixing together tracks of dialogue, background noises, and music recorded at different times; the tracks must be matched to one another and to the visual film. Though the audience may hear it simply as an accompaniment to what they see, the sound is sometimes the most expensive and difficult part of a motion picture.
Music
The live music that accompanied silent films varied from a full orchestra to a honky-tonk piano, according to the size of the theatre. Music was effectively used on the film set to improve an actor’s performance. With the advent of sound, music became an integral part of the film experience. Early mood music was so expressive that now it often seems overblown. Conscientious filmmakers soon learned the virtue of restraint, using music less frequently but to greater effect. From the 1960s onward, electronic music, as in Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977), was commonplace.
Music often has an important function in emotional climaxes of motion pictures. It can be used effectively to relieve or sublimate intolerable intensity—of grief, pain, or ecstasy—as in the use of the pop song “Stuck in the Middle with You” during a torture scene in Reservoir Dogs (1992). Il Vangelo secondo Matteo (1964; The Gospel According to St. Matthew), by the Italian director Pier Paolo Pasolini, reveals how expressive periods of silence can be and how great music can ennoble scenes like those of Christ’s persecution and agony on the cross. Music may also be used symbolically. In Léon Morin, prêtre (1961; Leon Morin, Priest), for example, a sequence of harsh chords represents the German occupation forces, and a dancing bugle motif represents the Italian troops. Organ music is used in scenes showing the heroine with the priest in church, piano music when they are in his flat. Hurdy-gurdy music represents two gossiping spinsters, and in a climactic scene louder and louder electronic music represents the heroine’s obsessive sexual feeling for the priest before she reaches out to take his hand.
Sound engineering
It is the function of the sound engineer to select and modify sound as the cameraman selects visual images. Since the noise of crockery, cutlery, or paper or the chirping of crickets would be intolerable transferred in full volume to the screen, the sound engineer must tone them down. Treble and bass must be balanced. In other cases, in order to get the effect needed, sound has to be built up and orchestrated as if it were music. Creative use of sound in motion pictures can lend remarkable delicacy, richness, and variety by using such devices as asynchronism—that is, contrasting the sound with the visual image. Sound libraries put most conceivable sounds readily at the disposal of filmmakers. Instruments and voices can be modified, overlapped, echoed, or given a resonance and volume that transform them. Dialogue can be crystal-clear, bringing the audience far closer to an actor than in the theatre, or it may be nearly inaudible by design.