The High Renaissance

The High Renaissance is dominated by great individuals whose spectacular projects were often left unfinished or were completed by others. Leonardo da Vinci’s rich and universal genius is best demonstrated in the dramatic movement of figures and tensely psychological interpretation of content shown in his two most important mural projects: the Battle of Anghiari (1503–06) in the Palazzo Vecchio of Florence (destroyed but known through partial copies) and the famous Last Supper (1495–98) in the Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan.

Michelangelo, more intense and deeply religious than the scientifically minded Leonardo, sought to channel his expression through the human figure alone. Thus, the dramatic movement of the figure carries the total design of his first mural, the Battle of Cascina (c. 1504) for the Palazzo Vecchio of Florence (lost but known through drawings and engravings). The stupendous project for the decoration of the Sistine Chapel ceiling for Pope Julius II followed the same method with increasing concentration on the figure, and the later Last Judgment (1534–41) on the end wall in the same room shows greater interest in the movement of larger figure masses in space with considerable dramatic freedom and intensity.

Raphael represents the most perfect balance and integration of all the problems of form, space, and decorative unity that had been experimented with through the preceding century. Perfection of form is identified with the juxtaposition of the Disputation of the Holy Sacrament (1510–11; called Disputa) and the School of Athens (1509–11) in the Stanza della Segnatura at the Vatican. The later historical murals of the Stanzas reveal an increasing interest in movement.

Correggio is the last of the High Renaissance mural painters. His frescoes in the cathedral and the church of San Giovanni Evangelista in Parma reflect the transition to the new concept of Mannerism.

Baroque and beyond

Two factors condition the development of mural decoration in the Baroque style of the 17th century. One is the enormous building enthusiasm engendered by the Counter-Reformation, particularly through the Jesuit order. The other is the importance given to palaces and homes of the ruling aristocracy throughout Europe as the centres of society’s cultural life. The roots of the style are to be found again in the work of the Renaissance masters but as interpreted and taught by the new institution of the Academy (e.g., that of the Carracci at Bologna, Italy, and the French Academy, founded in 1648). Its development can be followed from the allegorical decoration of the Palazzo Farnese in Rome by Annibale Carracci to the increasingly elaborate wall and ceiling frescoes of Domenichino, Pietro da Cortona, and Andrea Pozzo whereby the dramatic movement of foreshortened figures and perspective blends with the architecture to achieve a total unified and endless illusion of space.

The most prolific and indeed most important single Baroque artist from the decorative point of view is Peter Paul Rubens, whose designs for tapestries, historical paintings (the Marie de Médicis series in the Luxembourg Palace, now in the Louvre), and decorations for the Jesuit churches in Antwerp and the Banqueting House, Whitehall, London, as well as his own home in Antwerp, reflect both the universality of his productive genius and his international acceptance.

In late 18th- and 19th-century Europe, there was hardly any further development in style or technique. In the 20th century, however, mural decoration reemerged strongly in three major phases. One is the more abstract and expressionistic form stemming from the experimental easel painting of the Cubist and Fauvist groups in Paris and developing into the large projects of Pablo Picasso (UNESCO, Paris), Henri Matisse (chapel at Vence, France), Fernand Léger, Joan Miró, and Marc Chagall (decorations of the Paris Opéra and Lincoln Center, New York City). The second phase developed out of the revolutionary movement in Mexico with the remarkable series of frescoes by José Clemente Orozco, Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and Rufino Tamayo. With the ensuing acceptance of 20th-century concepts of design and structure in architecture, the new large-scale use of mosaics became a distinctive feature (e.g., the National Autonomous University of Mexico). A third phase was the short-lived American mural movement of the 1930s developed under U.S. federal sponsorship, the Works Progress Administration’s Federal Art Project. The wide geographic distribution of the work in U.S. public buildings and the freedom given to both individual and experimental modes of expression as well as to the interpretation of social and political problems provided an artistic impetus to mural decoration. Examples are murals of Ben Shahn, Boardman Robinson, Thomas Hart Benton, Reginald Marsh, Charles H. Alston, and John Steuart Curry. The murals painted by numerous artists at Coit Memorial Tower in San Francisco were created under the auspices of the federal government during that period and have been preserved into the 21st century.