Non-Western forms

Elements of structure

In many non-Western civilized cultures, such as those of India and Middle Eastern Islamic countries, music for the most part is not written down in advance of the performance but improvised upon framework-like patterns. In effect a composition exists only in its performance. Problems are presented by the different scales and intervals, rhythmic patterns, timbres, inflections, and the like. Or, again, a type of polyphony known as heterophony may result from the discrepancies that occur when several different singers or players simultaneously vary the same melodic line. In Japanese gagaku music, in which improvisation is not a factor, the beats often vary in duration, producing what is known as “elastic rhythms,” akin to the Western tempo rubato. Much non-Western music is functional: each piece has a specific purpose and is associated with certain events, actions, or situations, which often determine the musical structure.

Important elements of form in non-Western music are melody types and rhythmic patterns. By melody type is meant a melodic formula using a recognized scale, stressing particular tones and using specific configurations of intervals, which can provide the basis for a larger piece. In a given society or culture there ordinarily exists a large repertory of these melody types from which the musician, following convention, selects those for use in his rendition. The use of rhythmic patterns for form is seen, for instance, in colotomic structure, in which the composition is marked off in temporal entities by the differing but regularly recurring entrances of particular musical instruments in a set order.

In the music of nonliterate cultures, simple iterative and strophic structures predominate. These are characterized by short phrases and the frequent use of alternation between a soloist and the group (the “call-and-response” pattern). Such pieces, often associated with dancing, usually belong to specific rituals of one kind or another.

In literate cultures comprehensive theoretical music systems often exist, with elaborate musical forms. Nonetheless, the conception of propriety, that each musical piece has a certain function, is dominant. While strophic forms continue to be important, as in the Indian gat, the umui religious chants of the Ryukyu Islands (both of which also use variation), and in the popular music of most cultures, there are also such large musical forms as those related to the Indian rāgas, the Arabic maqāmāt (melody types), and the music of the gamelan (gong and percussion ensembles) of Java and Bali.

Specific formal patterns

The term rāga, meaning colour or passion, refers not only to a scale but also to the melody type. It has given rise to several musical forms, among them the ancient northern dhurpad and the shorter type known as khyāl in the North and kīrtana in the South. These may be vocal, instrumental, or both, the main performer or performers being accompanied by a drone played by a bass lute and by the reiteration of an extended rhythmic pattern (the tāla) by a drum. While much variety is possible, a typical formal arrangement includes a prelude which states the rāga (scale and melody type) in its simplest form and continues with a number of contrasting sections that differ in the degree of elaboration of the rāga, the register exploited, and the rapidity of the notes and figuration, usually reaching a climax near the end, in which daring variations on the rāga in the uppermost register are played or sung in very rapid tempo; the performance may conclude with a return to the character of the prelude. Interludes or linking passages, related to the prelude, are often present, so that an irregular reverting scheme results.

The Arabic maqām, roughly equivalent to the rāga, provides the basis, among others, for the bashraf, a reverting type not unlike the Western rondo, and the nawba, an extended multisectional performance with some resemblance to the suite. In Java and Bali particularly noteworthy is the gending (musical composition) for the gamelan, which may take one of several progressive sectional forms in which the colotomic principle is important: the large gending agen, usually bipartite, a slow movement followed by a fast one, and the shorter gending gangsaran, used as preludes and interludes.