After 1900 the study of prosody emerged as an important and respectable part of literary study. George Saintsbury published his great History of English Prosody during the years 1906–10. Sometime later, a number of linguists and aestheticians turned their attention to prosodic structure and the nature of poetic rhythm. Graphic prosody (the traditional syllable and foot scansion of syllable-stress metre) was placed on a securer theoretical footing. A number of prosodists, taking their lead from the work of Joshua Steele and Sidney Lanier, attempted to use musical notation to scan English verse. For the convenience of synoptic discussion, prosodic theorists are sometimes divided into four groups: the linguists who examine verse rhythm as a function of phonetic structures; the aestheticians who examine the psychological effects, the formal properties, and the phenomenology of rhythm; the musical scanners, or “timers,” who try to adapt the procedures of musical notation to metrical analysis; and the traditionalists who rely on the graphic description of syllable and stress to uncover metrical paradigms. It is necessary to point out that only the traditionalists concern themselves specifically with metrical form; aestheticians, linguists, and timers all examine prosody in its larger dimensions.

Structural linguistics placed the study of language on a solid scientific basis. Linguists measured the varied intensities of syllabic stress and pitch and the durations of junctures or the pauses between syllables. These techniques of objective measurement were applied to prosodic study. The Danish philologist Otto Jespersen’s early essay “Notes on Metre” (1900) made a number of significant discoveries. He established the principles of English metre on a demonstrably accurate structural basis; he recognized metre as a gestalt phenomenon (i.e., with emphasis on the configurational whole); he saw metrics as descriptive science rather than proscriptive regulation. Jespersen’s essay was written before interest in linguistics burgeoned; after World War II numerous attempts were made to formulate a descriptive science of metrics. Among those who invoked Jespersen were Morris Halle and Samuel Jay Keyser, whose essay “Chaucer and the Study of Prosody” (1966) became, in the decade after its publication, one of the most important attempts to develop this science. Halle and Keyser’s insistence in their essay that prosody be “the study of the abstract patterns—the different arrangements of linguistic givens—that underlie all performances of a given poem” and their use of Chaucer to rigorously define a theory of prosody helped spur the development of what has been called generative metrics.

It has been noted that Coleridge defined metrical form as a pattern of expectation, fulfillment, and surprise. Taking his cue from Coleridge, the British aesthetician I.A. Richards in Principles of Literary Criticism (1924) developed a closely reasoned theory of the mind’s response to rhythm and metre. His theory is organic and contextual; the sound effects of prosody have little psychologic effect by themselves. It is prosody in conjunction with “its contemporaneous other effects”—chiefly meaning or propositional sense—that produces its characteristic impact on our neural structures. Richards insisted that everything that happens in a poem depends on the organic environment; in his Practical Criticism (1929) he constructed a celebrated “metrical dummy” to “support [an] argument against anyone who affirms that the mere sound of verse has independently any considerable aesthetic virtue.” For Richards the most important function of metre was to provide aesthetic framing and control; metre makes possible, by its stimulation and release of tensions, “the most difficult and delicate utterances.”

Other critics, following the Neo-Kantian theories of the philosophers Ernst Cassirer and Susanne Langer, have suggested that rhythmic structure is a species of symbolic form. Harvey Gross in Sound and Form in Modern Poetry (1964) saw rhythmic structure as a symbolic form, signifying ways of experiencing organic processes and the phenomena of nature. The function of prosody, in his view, is to image life in a rich and complex way. Gross’s theory is also expressive; prosody articulates the movement of feeling in a poem. The unproved assumption behind Gross’s expressive and symbolic theory is that rhythm is in some way iconic to human feeling: that a particular rhythm or metre symbolizes, as a map locates the features of an actual terrain, a particular kind of feeling.

The most-sophisticated argument for musical scansion was given by Northrop Frye in his influential Anatomy of Criticism (1957), which differentiates between verse that shows unmistakable musical quality and verse written according to the imitative doctrines current in the Renaissance and Neoclassic periods. All of the poetry written in the older strong-stress metric, or poetry showing its basic structure, is musical poetry, and its structure resembles the music contemporary with it.

The most-convincing case for traditional “graphic prosody” was made by the American critics W.K. Wimsatt and Monroe C. Beardsley. Their essay “The Concept of Meter” (1965) argues that both the linguists and musical scanners do not analyze the abstract metrical pattern of poems but only interpret an individual performance of the poem. Poetic metre is not generated by any combination of stresses and pauses capable of precise scientific measurement; rather, metre is generated by an abstract pattern of syllables standing in positions of relative stress to each other. In a line of iambic pentameter

Preserved in Milton’s or in Shakespeare’s name…

the or of the third foot is only slightly stronger than the preceding syllable -ton’s, but this very slight difference makes the line recognizable as iambic metre. Wimsatt and Beardsley underlined the paradigmatic nature of metre; as an element in poetic structure, it is capable of exact abstraction.

Asian theories

The metres of the verse of ancient India were constructed on a quantitative basis. A system of long and short syllables, as in Greek, determined the variety of complicated metrical forms that are found in poetry of post-Vedic times—that is, after the 5th century bce.

Chinese prosody is based on the intricate tonal system of Chinese languages. In the Tang dynasty (618–907 ce) the metrical system for classical verse was fixed. The various tones of the language were subsumed under two large groups, even tones and oblique tones. Patterned arrangements of tones and the use of pauses, or caesuras, along with rhyme determine the Chinese prosodic forms.

Japanese poetry is without rhyme or marked metrical structure; it is purely syllabic. The two main forms of syllabic verses are the tanka and the haiku. Tanka is written in a stanza of 31 syllables that are divided into alternating lines of five and seven syllables. Haiku is an extremely concentrated form of only 17 syllables. Longer poems of 40 to 50 lines are also written; however, alternate lines must contain either five or seven syllables. The haiku form has been adapted to English verse and is a popular form. Other experimenters in English syllabic verse show the influence of Japanese prosody. Syllabic metre in English, however, is limited in its rhythmic effects; it is incapable of expressing the range of feeling that is available in the traditional stress and syllable-stress metres.