With the first group of symphonists born in the 19th century the Romantic style was fully fledged. The French composer Hector Berlioz and the Hungarian Franz Liszt contributed large symphonic works that to some extent departed in form from the Classical sonata-centred model. The literary program to Berlioz’s Symphonie fantastique: épisode de la vie d’un artiste (1830) was not written until the music was well along toward completion. The symphony was thoroughly planned out thematically and formally and stands as a musical unity without regard to the program, which Berlioz himself eventually withdrew. A very personal expression nevertheless, the Symphonie fantastique introduces a structural idée fixe, a theme (representing his mistress?) recurring throughout the five movements in various rhythmic forms, serving to unite the “scenes” musically as well as dramatically.

Harold en Italie (1834; after Lord Byron’s poem), like the Symphonie fantastique, makes use of preexistent material and is unified not only by a program but by a recurrent theme, a viola solo representing Harold. This theme is not subject to the kind of variation given the idée fixe in the Symphonie fantastique, yet from it springs much of the melodic inspiration of the whole work. Berlioz’s third symphonic work, Roméo et Juliette (1839), rarely heard in its entirety, incorporates chorus and vocal soloists into its five large sections, which are programmatically derived from episodes of Shakespeare’s drama. Not coincidentally, Berlioz was a great admirer of Beethoven. Beethoven’s unity of moods, thematic development, and dramatic orchestration were models for Berlioz to extend, although he did so outside the formal confines of the sonata and with even more explicit passion.

Liszt owed much to Berlioz, both in his handling of enlarged orchestral forces and in thematic transformation (as opposed to development). The three movements of his Faust Symphony (1854) bear the names of Goethe’s characters—Faust, Gretchen, and Mephistopheles—and the final movement parodies themes of the first two in a satisfyingly diabolical manner. Characters aside, the music is highly effective and balanced; Liszt revised the score over several decades. The score is dedicated to Berlioz.

Liszt’s other symphonic work, the Symphony to Dante’s Divina Commedia (1856), depicts the three major sections of The Divine Comedy—Inferno, Purgatory, and Paradise. Liszt, at times a devout Catholic, portrayed Dante’s scenes with great imagination and passion, cleverly suiting his melody—sometimes simple and tranquil, sometimes chromatic and writhing—and harmony to the special characters of the three levels. The symphony is dedicated to Wagner, who suggested the third-movement setting of the Magnificat for female chorus and orchestra. As do many operas of Wagner, Liszt’s work uses the leitmotif, an extension of Berlioz’s idée fixe.

If Berlioz and Liszt represented a trend toward freedom and extramusical content in symphonic writing, Schumann and Mendelssohn were more conservative though not strictly comparable. All four were deeply concerned with formal discipline, but Schumann and Mendelssohn departed less widely from Classical norms and made less point of extramusical associations.

Mendelssohn

Felix Mendelssohn wrote 16 symphonies and a symphony-cantata. Twelve of the symphonies are immature works, but the remainder fairly exemplify his style: facile, full of light melody and brilliant orchestration, occasionally oversentimental, according to some critics. He is best known for his Symphony No. 3 (Scottish) and Symphony No. 4 (Italian), both in A major–minor. The Scottish (also called Scotch), completed in 1842, although not programmatic, is expressive of Mendelssohn’s poetic nature. Its beginning was sketched during a visit to Scotland in 1829. In structure the work consists of four movements played without pause, with a slow introduction. Its fairylike scherzo, which incorporates part of a Scottish folk song, exemplifies the delicate moods that Mendelssohn excelled in creating. The other movements are well developed, the many contrasting themes integrated contrapuntally and extended with interesting modulations. But although it is full of good music, the Scottish is less powerful than its companion, the Italian (finished 1833). This happy work, inspired by visits to Rome and Naples, is particularly colourfully orchestrated. It ends with a dance movement incorporating three themes; the minor tonality does not detract from its vivacity. The first movement too has three themes, the third introduced in the development section. The second movement, recalling a religious procession, and the third, a quasi-minuet and trio, are picturesque without being descriptive and represent Mendelssohn at his finest—uncomplicated, lush, and vigorous.

Schumann

Robert Schumann, like Mendelssohn and Mozart, wrote his symphonies at an age when most longer-lived composers, are just beginning to mature and wrote only a few truly great ones. Like many first-generation Romantic composers Schumann was essentially a miniaturist, most at home in songs and short piano works. His orchestral style reflects these qualities; rhythmically restless, often repetitive, not sensitively scored, they have been praised more for their harmonic subtleties and wonderful lyric melodies than for development of these ideas.

The Symphony No. 1 in B-flat Major (1841; Spring), based on a poem by Adolph Böttger, originally had titles given each movement; these were soon rejected by Schumann and indeed are irrelevant to the music. The first movement, opening with a slow introduction (a tradition since the days of Haydn), incorporates three contrasting themes (the third introduced toward the conclusion of the movement) as well as the opening dramatic figure of the introduction. The slow movement and unusual scherzo (it has two different trios, rather than one) are linked thematically and played without a pause between them. The impulsive progress of the finale is interrupted before the recapitulation by slower passages for flute and hunting horns, perhaps intended by Schumann to be descriptive.

The Symphony No. 2 in C Major (1846) is tightly organized and owes something in design to Beethoven. It has been overshadowed by more frequent performances of Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major (1850; Rhenish) and Symphony No. 4 in D Minor (1841, rev. 1851). The five-movement Rhenish is less “classical” than the Symphony No. 2. Inspired by a ceremony at Cologne Cathedral as well as by the appearance of the cathedral itself, the polyphonic grandeur and harmonic richness, especially of the fourth movement, are tempered by the relaxed pace and rustic character of the scherzo and following short, quiet slow movement. The outer movements are related both thematically and in mood, and the last two movements also share material, forming a large cohesive structure.

Even more cohesive is the plan of Schumann’s fourth—and last—symphony, in which all four movements are played, as in Mendelssohn’s Scottish Symphony, without pause. A single theme recurs in various guises in all four movements; this thematic transformation is a hallmark of Schumann’s style, as of Berlioz’s and Liszt’s. The last movement introduces new material but without destroying the cyclic nature of the whole work. Cyclic structure, which relates separate movements by means of reuse of thematic material, is a feature of much symphonic writing after Beethoven. As composers gradually departed from repetitive forms, cyclic construction became a chief mode of achieving unity over a large time span and greatly enlarged harmonic vocabulary. An advanced form of cyclic construction may be seen in the Belgian composer César Franck’s influential single Symphony in D Minor (1888).