Boniface VIII
- Original name:
- Benedetto Caetani
- Born:
- c. 1235
- Died:
- October 11, 1303, Rome [Italy]
- Title / Office:
- pope (1294-1303)
- Subjects Of Study:
- Year of Jubilee
- authority
- papacy
Boniface VIII (born c. 1235—died October 11, 1303, Rome [Italy]) was the pope from 1294 to 1303, the extent of whose authority was vigorously challenged by the emergent powerful monarchs of western Europe, especially Philip IV of France. Among the lasting achievements of his pontificate were the publication of the third part of the Corpus juris canonici, the Liber sextus, and the institution of the Jubilee of 1300, the first Holy Year.
Early life and election to the papacy
Benedetto Caetani was born of an old and influential Roman family. He studied law in Bologna and then for many years held increasingly important functions in the papal government. Martin IV made him cardinal deacon of St. Nicholas in Carcere Tulliano in 1281, and under Nicholas IV he became cardinal priest of St. Martin in Montibus in 1291. As papal legate to a church council in Paris from 1290 to 1291, he succeeded in delaying the outbreak of renewed war between France and England and in bringing about peace between France and Aragon. It was Benedetto Cardinal Caetani who confirmed the unhappy pope Celestine V in his wish to resign and then, after he had succeeded him as Boniface VIII, found it advisable to intern the old man in the castle of Fumone, where he soon died. Although Celestine died of natural causes, the death was open to suspicion and incriminating aspersions by Boniface’s enemies. Among those who carried on the propaganda and opposition against Boniface were many of the Franciscan “Spirituals” (members of the order founded by St. Francis of Assisi who followed a literal observance of his rule of poverty), including the poet Jacopone da Todi, some of whose poems were written during his imprisonment by Boniface.
The two principal international conflicts that existed from the beginning of Boniface’s pontificate were that between France and England concerning Guyenne and Flanders, and that between the kingdoms of Naples and Aragon concerning the island of Sicily, which, after much provocation, had broken away from the Neapolitan king, disregarding papal feudal overlordship. Boniface finally, though unwillingly, accepted the independence of the island kingdom under Frederick of Aragon. His attempts to stop hostilities between Edward I of England and Philip IV of France, however, became enmeshed with another important problem, the increasing tendency of these warring monarchs to tax the clergy without obtaining papal consent. Although the desire of the late medieval rulers to tax the wealth of their clergy has been defended and can perhaps be understood, the practice was unquestionably contrary to the canon law (ecclesiastical law) of the time. That Boniface refused to look on inactively while the struggle between France and England, which he was trying to terminate, was being financed at the cost and to the prejudice of the church and the papacy is not surprising. In 1296 he issued the bull Clericis laicos, which forbade under the sanction of automatic excommunication any imposition of taxes on the clergy without express license by the pope. This bull had some effect in England, chiefly because of its support by the archbishop of Canterbury, Robert Winchelsey, but in France there was no strong defender of papal prerogative against the concerted action of the king and his civil lawyers. His bull Unam sanctam (1302) proclaimed the primacy of the pope and insisted on the submission of the temporal to the spiritual power.
Conflicts with Philip IV of France
Philip IV countered or even forestalled the publication of Clericis laicos with an order forbidding all export of money and valuables from France and with the expulsion of foreign merchants. Although these measures were a serious threat to papal revenues, they alone probably would not have forced Boniface to the far-reaching concessions that he had to grant the French king within the year, concessions that almost amounted to revocation of Clericis laicos. The necessity of coming to terms was primarily the result of an insurrection against Boniface by a section of the Colonna family, a powerful anti-papal Roman family that included two cardinals, culminating in the armed robbery of a large amount of papal treasure in May 1297. A year of military action against the Colonna followed, which ended with their unconditional surrender. They were absolved from excommunication but were not reinstated in their offices and possessions. They therefore rebelled again and fled; some of them went to Philip, with whom they had conspired, perhaps, even before the issue of Clericis laicos.
Boniface’s first conflict with the French king was followed by an apparent reconciliation, which was emphasized by the pope’s canonization of Philip’s holy ancestor Louis IX. A second conflict, which broke out in 1301 around the trumped-up charges against a southern French bishop, Bernard Saisset of Pamiers, and his summary trial and imprisonment, proved to be irreconcilable. Now the king threatened and meant to destroy one of the most fundamental gains that the papacy had made and maintained in the great struggles of the last two centuries: papal, rather than secular, control of the clergy. The pope could not compromise here, and in the bull Ausculta fili (“Listen Son”) he sharply rebuked Philip and demanded amends, especially the release of the bishop, who had appealed to Rome. Instead, the king’s chancellor, Pierre Flotte, was allowed to circulate a distorted extract of the bull and thus to prepare public opinion for the great assembly of the States General (the legislative body of France) in April 1302, in which nobles and burghers enthusiastically, and the clergy reluctantly, supported the king.
Boniface, nevertheless, appears to have had good reason to hope for a favourable termination of the conflict, because Philip’s army was shortly afterward disastrously defeated by a league of Flemish townspeople and because the German king and prospective emperor, Albert I of Habsburg, was ready to give up his French alliance if the pope would recognize the contested legitimacy of his rule. This recognition was granted early in 1303 in terms that exalted the ideal and traditional, though rarely realized, harmonious relationship between the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire. This empire now was said by the pope to possess—under ultimate papal supremacy—an overlordship over all other kingdoms, including France.
In November 1302 Boniface had issued an even more fundamental declaration concerning the position of the papacy in the Christian world, the bull Unam sanctam (“One Holy”), which has become the most widely known of all papal documents of the Middle Ages because of its allegedly radical and extreme formulation of the content of the papal office. The bull as a whole is indeed a strong but not a novel invocation of the supremacy of the spiritual over the temporal power. Nevertheless, the old Gelasian doctrine that both powers are distinct and both are from God is clearly stated, and in the final dogmatic sentence the pope speaks not of the temporal power but of the human creature as the object of the papal plenitude of power, submission to which is said to be necessary for salvation.
Meanwhile in France, Philip IV’s councillor Guillaume de Nogaret had taken Flotte’s place as the leader of an actively anti-papal royal policy. Philip was supported in this policy by other enemies of the pope, including the legate whom Boniface had dispatched to France in these critical months and who betrayed his master, the French cardinal Jean Lemoine (Johannes Monachus). Many unjustified accusations against Boniface, ranging from unlawful entry into the papal office to heresy, were raised against him at a secret meeting of the king and his advisers held in the Louvre at Paris; these accusations were to be taken up and elaborated upon later during the posthumous trial against the pope pursued by Philip IV. Shortly after the Louvre meeting, at which Nogaret had demanded the condemnation of the pope by a general council of the church, Nogaret went to Italy to stir up, if possible, rebellion against the pope.