War in India

The death of Clavering in 1777 put Hastings once again in possession of full power, although Francis’s opposition dragged on for another three years. It ended in a pistol duel between Hastings and Francis; the latter was wounded, and he returned to Europe. But by 1777 the energies of the Bengal government were becoming more and more absorbed in war. War against Indian states was always a likely consequence of the company’s conquest of Bengal. As full participants in the unstable world created in India by the fall of the Mughal Empire, the company now found it difficult not to be drawn into the rivalries of the powers that had set themselves up in the ruins of the empire. Hastings’s policy was to avoid further conquest and war but to maintain peaceful relations with neighbouring states by a series of alliances. He had, however, already taken part in one war in 1774, when he helped the company’s ally on the northwestern boundary of Bengal, the vizier of Oudh, to take over territory occupied by a people called the Rohillas; and in 1778 he became involved in war with the Marathas, a loose federation of Hindu peoples in western and central India. Rightly or wrongly, Hastings came to believe that it was necessary for the safety of the British in India to ensure that the Maratha leaders were friendly to the company and that he would be justified in applying military pressure to achieve this end. After the entry of France into the American Revolution in 1778, he was also confronted with French expeditionary forces in the Indian Ocean. Finally, in 1780, Hyder (Haidar) Ali, the ruler of the south Indian state of Mysore, attacked the British at Madras. War on several fronts brought out the best in Hastings, and his achievement in organizing the company’s military and financial resources to counter every threat was a remarkable one. The Marathas were brought to peace in 1782, as was Mysore in 1784, and the French were held in check until peace was made in Europe in 1783. But war stretched the company to the limit, disrupting its trade and thus antagonizing opinion at home. War also forced Hastings (or so he believed) into dubious acts to raise extra funds, two of which—the demand for a subsidy to the company from Chait Singh, the raja of Banaras, and the requisitioning of the treasures of the begums of Oudh (the mother and grandmother of the vizier)—were to count heavily against him later.

Retirement and impeachment

It was, however, an India at peace and with British dominions fully intact that Hastings finally left in 1785. But even before his retirement the allegations of Francis and the reports of wars, whether justly or unjustly undertaken, had damaged his reputation; and the passionate moral concern about the standards of the British in India felt by Edmund Burke, the great Whig parliamentarian, had come to be focused on Hastings. Most historians, while recognizing Burke’s absolute sincerity, now feel that Burke was attempting to pin the evils of a situation on one individual and that he had chosen the wrong one. But Hastings was vulnerable on episodes such as the execution of Nandakumar and his treatment of the begums of Oudh and Chait Singh and even on some aspects of his personal finances, where he had acquired money in excess of his official allowances. In 1786, when Burke introduced an impeachment process against him (a prosecution by the House of Commons before the House of Lords), these blemishes were enough to persuade the House of Commons and in particular William Pitt the Younger, the prime minister, that Hastings ought to be sent to trial. The trial before the House of Lords lasted from 1788 to 1795, when he was acquitted. It is difficult not to regard this long-drawn-out ordeal as a serious injustice. At the most it made some contribution to the process by which standards were being laid down for the future conduct of British rule in India.

After his acquittal, Hastings lived to age 85 as a retired country gentleman—unassuming, mild-mannered, and of scholarly tastes, as he had been during his active career.

Legacy

As the first governor-general of Bengal, Hastings was responsible for consolidating British control over the first major Indian province to be conquered. In his term of office he initiated solutions to such problems as how vast Indian populations were to be administered by a handful of foreigners and how the British, now themselves a major Indian power, were to fit into the state system of 18th-century India. These solutions were to have a profound influence on Britain’s future role in India. Hastings’s career is also of importance in raising for the British public at home other problems created by their new Indian empire—problems of the degree of control to be exercised over Englishmen in India and of the standards of integrity and fair dealing to be expected from them—and the solutions to these problems were also important for the future.