Fenian raids

Fenian raids, series of abortive armed incursions conducted by the Fenians, an Irish-nationalist secret society, from the United States into British Canada in the late 19th century. The unrealized aim of the quixotic raids was to conquer Canada and exchange it with Great Britain for Irish independence. The name of the society derives from the Fianna Éireann, the legendary band of Irish warriors led by the fictional Finn MacCumhaill (MacCool). The society was founded in the United States by John O’Mahony and in Ireland by James Stephens (1858).

Early American movement

The Irish society suffered a blow in 1865 when Britain crushed the Ireland-based independence movement, scattering its leaders. That situation created bad feelings toward Britain among many American Civil War veterans of Irish heritage, and their membership in the Fenian movement quickly grew to about 10,000 men.

Chief among the Fenians’ goals was Irish independence, but they were divided on the question of how that could be achieved. Some advocated staging a massive uprising in Ireland, while others favoured cross-border military action against Canada.

Fenian targeting of Canada

British and Canadian officials took the threat posed by the Fenians seriously and directed that spies originally planted to monitor Confederate sympathizers in the northern United States shift their attention to the Fenians. In November 1865, a small number of militia were called out to garrison points in Canada West, or modern-day Ontario, including Sarnia, Windsor, Niagara, and Prescott.

By March 1866, it had become evident that the Fenians were going to act against Canada, resulting in the calling up of 10,000—later increased to 14,000—Canadian volunteers for active duty. Nothing happened immediately, however, and the volunteers were sent home. Then, in April, the Fenians staged a raid against Campobello Island in New Brunswick, achieving nothing other than the destruction of a few buildings.

In May 1866, further evidence revealed another potential attack against Canada. The Fenians had ambitious plans to strike at several points in Canada West and Canada East, or modern-day Quebec. Twenty-thousand Canadian volunteers were quickly mobilized, while 13 small steamboats were commandeered and, under the guidance of the Royal Navy, patrolled the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. Fortunately for Canada, the Fenian plans fell apart, as fewer men than expected chose to join the forces concentrating at Chicago, Cleveland, Buffalo, and other locations. Fenian leaders were also unable to requisition the ships needed to transport their forces. American officials, uneasy about the invasion’s potential effect on Anglo-American relations, also intervened, arresting some of the would-be conquerors. With their plan in tatters, the remaining Fenians settled upon crossing the Niagara River from Buffalo to Fort Erie in Canada West.

Battle of Ridgeway

In early June, 850 Fenians led by John O’Neill crossed the Niagara River, establishing a bridgehead near Fort Erie. They then advanced westward toward Port Colborne. Meanwhile, George T.C. Napier, the commander of British forces in Canada West, had acted. Within a short period, a total of 20,000 Canadian troops were under arms and British regiments were on the march. Some 900 men from the 2nd (Queen’s Own Rifles) and 13th Battalions as well as the York and Caledonia Rifle Companies, under the command of Alfred Booker, were sent to Dunville. Another column of troops, under George Peacocke, was en route to Chippawa, from where Peacocke would assume command of the British and Canadian troops. To contain the threat posed by the Fenians, Peacocke ordered Booker to Port Colborne.

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Having been ordered on June 2, 1866, to move to Fort Erie, Booker found 600 Fenians at Ridgeway and deployed his men. The battle opened well for the Canadians, who, despite their inexperience, performed well under fire. It was not until someone ordered them to prepare for cavalry that the tide turned, as the militiamen moved into a defensive formation designed to repel a cavalry charge. The Fenians were able to exploit the situation, forcing the Canadians from the field. Nine Canadians were killed and 32 wounded, while the Fenians lost 10 men killed and an unknown number wounded.

Later that day the steamship W.T. Robb, crewed by the Dunville Naval Brigade and carrying the Welland Canal Volunteer Artillery, landed at Fort Erie, where a fierce skirmish broke out with elements of O’Neill’s army that left six Canadians injured and 36 taken prisoner. The Fenians lost nine men killed and 14 wounded. Shortly afterward, other Canadian troops and elements of the British 16th and 47th Regiments arrived, forcing O’Neill to withdraw his forces back to the United States, where they were promptly arrested. (O’Neill was soon paroled.)

The Fenians struck again a few days later. On June 8, approximately 200 of them crossed the frontier near Huntington, to the south of Montreal. After a significant advance, they turned around quickly upon discovering that a large body of Canadian and British troops were converging on them. The defenders managed to catch and defeat the Fenians at Pidgeon Hill, which ended the first round of attacks for a few years.

Raids into Quebec

Despite facing a number of setbacks, in 1870 the Fenians made a new attempt at invading Canada. In the meantime, the British North America Act (1867) had created the Dominion of Canada, and the new Canadian government was able to call up 13,000 volunteers to secure the frontier of Ontario and Quebec.

On May 25, John O’Neill (who had been proclaimed a hero after Ridgeway and appointed inspector-general of the Fenian forces), with some 600 Fenians, left Vermont for Quebec. At Eccles Hill, just north of the border, they were met by a detachment of the 60th Missisquoi Battalion and elements of the Dunham Volunteers and another volunteer unit known as the Home Guard, commanded by Brown Chamberlain. The Fenians were defeated in a short, sharp action, losing five men killed and 18 wounded. There were no losses among the Canadians.

Two days later, another group of Fenians crossed the border into Quebec at Trout River, about six miles (15 kilometres) west of Eccles Hill. The 50th Canadian Battalion, the Montreal Volunteer Artillery, and the British 69th Regiment swiftly dealt with the invasion, and the Fenians fled back across the border. Again, there were no Canadian casualties.

Last gasp in Manitoba

The final act by the Fenians came in October 1871, when O’Neill crossed the Manitoba border at Emerson and, with 40 men, occupied a customs office. The next day, Canadian soldiers from Winnipeg and Saint Boniface learned while marching to meet the invaders that the U.S. Army had arrested O’Neill and his men, which ended the Fenian threat for good.

The Fenian raids owe their origin to Irish aspirations for independence. Although the Fenians did not achieve that goal, their raids revealed shortfalls in the leadership, structure, and training of the Canadian militia, which led to a number of reforms and improvements in the years to come. More importantly, the threat posed to British North America by the irregular Fenian armies, along with growing concerns over American military and economic might, led to increased support among British and Canadian officials for confederation and the formation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867.

An earlier version of this entry was published by The Canadian Encyclopedia .