Study and exploration
Attempts by European powers to gain control of northwestern Africa began in the 15th century. Portuguese activity was confined to the Strait of Gibraltar and the Atlantic coast of Morocco, where several forts were established. Spanish activity, initiated at the beginning of the 16th century, included the capture of Mediterranean ports and a slow penetration first of the Rif region and after 1860 into other parts of Morocco. French influence was more extensive. Beginning in 1830 with the capture of Algiers, French control expanded eventually to encompass all but the Rifian part of the Atlas region, including a protectorate over most of Morocco (1912–56). Road building to control the mountains and to facilitate the movement of peoples and goods enhanced communication in what had been an isolated and fragmented region, often weakly controlled by government authorities based in lowland areas. No longer the focus of European exploration or exploitation, the Atlas Mountains are a conspicuous feature of the independent states of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.
Hildebert İsnard Marvin W. Mikesell