Donbas
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Donbas, large mining and industrial region of southeastern Europe, notable for its sizable coal reserves. The industrial area of the Donbas includes much of the Ukrainian oblasti (provinces) of Donetsk and Luhansk. The Donbas coalfield lies primarily in southeastern Ukraine, but a small portion of it extends into Rostov oblast (region) in southwestern Russia. The principal exploited area of the field covers nearly 9,000 square miles (23,300 square km) south of the Donets River, but coal deposits also extend westward to the Dnieper River in the greater Donets Basin.
Mineral resources and industry in the Donbas
Coal was first discovered in the Donbas in 1721, but exploitation did not begin until the early 19th century and became significant only after the first railway reached the area in 1869. Development in the last two decades of the 19th century was rapid, and by 1913 the Donbas was producing 87 percent of the coal and 74 percent of the pig iron in the Russian Empire. More than 100 mining communities eventually developed in the region. Despite erosion of its relative position by the development of new coalfields and despite setbacks in World War I, in the Russian Civil War following the October Revolution (1917), and in World War II, absolute coal production continued to increase until the 1970s. Annual production then began to decline.
The Donbas still has large coal reserves, much of it of high quality. Of the proved reserves, about one-fourth are anthracite, concentrated chiefly at the eastern end of the field. The coal occurs in some 300 coal-bearing seams. A difficulty of the field is that seams are thin, averaging just under 3 feet (1 metre), and only 40 are thick enough to be worked economically. Most thicker seams and those nearer the surface have been worked out, and mining is now deep—down to 2,000 feet (600 metres) for lignite and 5,900 feet (1,800 metres) for higher-quality bituminous and anthracite coals. The average mining depth is 1,150–1,300 feet (350–400 metres).
The area remains the largest single producing area of iron and steel in Ukraine and is one of the world’s major metallurgical and heavy-industrial complexes. Iron ore is obtained from Kryvyy Rih to the west, and manganese is mined at Nikopol and Marhanets on the Dnieper. The chief iron- and steel-producing towns of the basin, together with Luhansk, Kramatorsk, and other centres, have a range of large heavy-engineering industries. The chemical industry is well developed, based on coking by-products and rock salt mined in the Donets Basin near Artemivsk; the main chemical towns are Artemivsk and Slov’yansk. Mercury is also mined in the Donets Basin, and cement making is important. A wide range of light and consumer-goods industries have been introduced to diversify the economy and to supply the needs of the large urban populations.
History of the Donbas
Early history through the Soviet era
The Scythians had established a presence in the lands of the Donbas by the 7th century bce, and many nomadic peoples of the Western Steppe passed through the area over subsequent centuries. By the 16th century the settled population began to grow, and control of the area was divided between the Zaporozhian Cossacks in the north and the khanate of Crimea in the south. At this time the kings of Poland and the princes of Muscovy attempted to exert their influence in the region, and both enlisted the Cossacks to check the advances of the Tatars from Crimea. The Crimean War (1853–56), which cut off Russia’s access to imported coal from England, provided some impetus to the industrial development of the Donbas, but large-scale commercial exploitation of the region began only after the coming of the railways in the 1870s.
After several largely unsuccessful efforts to establish a metallurgical industry in the Donbas, an ironworks was set up in 1872 by Welsh engineer John Hughes at the site of present-day Donetsk. The industrial economy of the Donbas began to expand dramatically after the completion in 1886 of a railway to the iron ore mines of Kryvyy Rih, and, by the beginning of World War I, the Donets Basin had developed into the principal iron- and steel-producing region of the Russian Empire. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin’s Five-Year Plans greatly accelerated industrial development in the Donbas during the interwar years, albeit at an enormous human cost to the Ukrainian peasantry. Tens of thousands of Ukrainian peasants were deported to Siberia, and millions perished as a result of Stalin’s man-made famine (Holodomor). Meanwhile, many of the workers attracted to the growing industrial cities in the Donbas came from Russia. As a result, the urban centres of the Donbas became highly Russified islands in what had been a Ukrainian rural sea. World War II caused heavy damage to mines, plants, and towns. Many industrial assets were destroyed by the Soviets ahead of the German advance as part of their scorched-earth retreat, and the local population suffered brutal treatment under Nazi occupation. The great devastation of World War II accelerated the reequipment of factories and mines with modern machinery, while concentration into larger units during reconstruction made economies of scale possible. Throughout the postwar Soviet period, the Donbas remained a key centre of heavy industry and coal production.
The Donbas in independent Ukraine and the Russian invasion of the Donbas
With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Donbas became a major industrial engine of the economy of independent Ukraine. The region also served as the political base of Viktor Yanukovych, a pro-Russian politician who would play a significant role in early 21st-century Ukrainian history. In 2004 Ukrainian Pres. Leonid Kuchma presented Yanukovych as his successor, but Yanukovych faced a strong challenge from opposition leader Viktor Yushchenko. During the presidential campaign, Yushchenko was prevented from speaking in the Donbas by local authorities, and he became seriously ill from dioxin poisoning in an apparent assassination attempt (allegedly by the Ukrainian state security service). When Yanukovych and Yushchenko faced each other in the second round of the 2004 presidential election, exit polls gave Yushchenko the clear lead. Yanokovych was declared victorious, however—a result that was quickly recognized by Russian Pres. Vladimir Putin. Yushchenko’s supporters maintained that the results were fabricated, and a mass protest movement that came to be called the Orange Revolution began in western Ukraine, where Yushchenko was generally regarded as the winner. Meanwhile, in Syeverodonetsk, in the Donbas, a meeting of Moscow-supported politicians recognized Yanukovych as president and considered a referendum on whether the Ukrainian oblasti (provinces) of Donetsk and Luhansk should become autonomous and ultimately secede from Ukraine and join Russia. In December 2004 the presidential election results were annulled by the Supreme Court, and a second runoff was held, in which Yushchenko was declared the winner. Instability would plague Yushchenko’s administration, however, and he was soon forced into a power-sharing agreement with Yanukovych as his prime minister.
Yanukovych was elected president in 2010, and he immediately pivoted away from the pro-European course that Yushchenko had set in favour of a strongly pro-Russian foreign and domestic policy. In 2012 Yanukovych signed a law that granted local authorities the power to confer official status upon minority languages; in cities throughout the Donbas, this meant the recognition of Russian as an official language alongside Ukrainian. In spite of Yanukovych’s obvious affinity for Russia, in late 2013 he signaled his willingness to conclude an association agreement with the European Union. After a visit with Putin in Moscow, Yanukovych opted not to sign the agreement, and, within hours of the about-face, protesters took to the streets. For months thousands of people converged on central Kyiv to participate in a protest camp in the city’s Maidan Nezalezhnosti (“Independence Square”). In February 2014 Yanukovych attempted to quash the demonstration with a bloody crackdown that killed dozens of protesters and destroyed his political base. Impeached by an overwhelming parliamentary majority that included members of his own party, Yanukovych fled to Russia. Within days Putin, deprived of his lever in Kyiv, invaded the Ukrainian autonomous republic of Crimea. Putin spent the next month consolidating his grip on Crimea, and in April 2014 Russian-backed militants and Russian troops in uniforms that lacked insignia seized control of a broad swath of the Donbas. Pro-Russian separatists in Donetsk and Luhansk proclaimed their independence, and fierce fighting continued throughout the region.
During the summer of 2014, the Ukrainian military pushed back Russian and separatist forces throughout the Donbas, recapturing the cities of Mariupol, Slov’yansk, and Kramatorsk and waging a pitched battle for control of the Donetsk airport. Tens of thousands of people were internally displaced by the fighting, and damage to infrastructure within the conflict zone disrupted access to water and electrical power. Several attempts were made to negotiate a cease-fire, and in February 2015 talks in Minsk, Belarus, led to an agreement that saw most heavy weapons being withdrawn from the line of contact that ran through the Donbas.
This did not mean an end to the fighting, however, and by 2022 the war in the Donbas had claimed more than 14,000 lives. From the beginning of hostilities, Putin had denied—implausibly—the involvement of Russian personnel in the Donbas war, but in late 2021 it appeared that Russia was preparing for overt military action against Ukraine. Moscow stated that the massing of troops and matériel along the Ukrainian border was nothing more than an exercise, but Western analysts characterized the buildup as clear evidence of a planned invasion. On February 21, 2022, Putin’s intentions were made clear when he recognized the independence of the self-proclaimed people’s republics of Donetsk and Luhansk. Three days later Russian troops poured into Ukraine from Crimea, Belarus, and southwestern Russia, but their advance was soon checked by a tenacious Ukrainian defense. As the Russian drive on Kyiv faltered, the focus shifted to the Donbas, where many of Ukraine’s most seasoned units were holding the line. With his broader ambitions in Ukraine frustrated by a poor performance by the Russian military and overwhelming Western support for Ukraine’s government, Putin sought to salvage his “special military operation” by “liberating” the Donbas. As his casus belli, Putin had claimed, falsely, that Ukrainian forces were carrying out a genocide against Russian speakers in the Donbas. Ironically, the Russian invasion caused significantly more death and hardship than the previous eight years of conflict, and cities like Mariupol—traditionally strongly pro-Russian in their sympathies—were essentially razed by indiscriminate Russian artillery strikes.
In September 2022 Ukraine launched a counteroffensive that liberated some 4,500 square miles (almost 12,000 sq km) of Russian-occupied territory in Kharkiv, Donetsk, and Luhansk oblasti. Putin responded by initiating a massive conscription drive to replace Russia’s staggering personnel losses, and the Russian occupation governments in the Donbas and southern Ukraine hastily declared that they would hold “referenda” on joining Russia. Outside of Russia, the so-called “referenda” were dismissed as a sham, and video evidence emerged of Russian gunmen going door-to-door to collect “votes.” Although the Russian military controlled less than half of Donetsk oblast, Russian authorities reported that 99 percent of residents had voted to join Russia. This unbelievable total recalled a similar “referendum” held in Russian-occupied Crimea in 2014. On September 30 Putin delivered an address that announced the illegal annexation of Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhya oblasti by Russia. The move, which was roundly condemned by the West, was an attempt to legitimize Russia’s invasion and occupation at a time when Ukrainian forces were reclaiming territory throughout the region.