In addition to measuring atmospheric composition, the Galileo probe carried instruments to measure both the temperature and pressure during its descent into the Jovian atmosphere. This profile is illustrated in the figure, which includes the locations of the different cloud layers if they had occurred where they were expected. Notably, temperatures higher than the freezing point of water (273 K, 32 °F, 0 °C) were measured at pressures just a few times greater than sea-level pressure on Earth (about one bar). This is mainly a consequence of Jupiter’s internal energy source, although some warming would occur just through the trapping of infrared radiation by the atmosphere via a process comparable to Earth’s greenhouse effect.

The increase in temperature above the tropopause (upper part of the figure) is known as an inversion, because temperature normally decreases with height. The inversion is caused by the absorption of solar energy at these altitudes by gases and aerosol particles. A similar inversion is caused in Earth’s atmosphere by the presence of ozone (see ozonosphere).

Other likely atmospheric constituents

The list of atmospheric abundances in the table above is certainly not complete. For example, astronomers expect monosilane to be present in the deep atmosphere, along with many other exotic species. Other nonequilibrium species should occur in the higher regions, accessible to future atmospheric probes, as a result of chemical reactions driven by lightning discharges or solar ultraviolet radiation, or at the poles (where, for example, benzene has been detected) by the precipitation of charged particles.

The formation of complex organic molecules in Jupiter’s atmosphere is of great interest in the study of the origin of life. The initial chemical processes that gave rise to living organisms on Earth may have occurred in transient microenvironments that resembled the present chemical composition of Jupiter, although without the enormous amounts of hydrogen and helium. Thus, Jupiter may well represent a vast natural laboratory in which the initial steps toward the origin of life are being pursued again and again. Determining how complex prelife chemical processes can become under such conditions constitutes one of the most fascinating problems confronting any program of space exploration.

Collisions with comets and asteroids

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In 1994 Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, which had been discovered the previous year, crashed into Jupiter’s atmosphere after breaking up into more than 20 fragments. The successive explosions were observed by telescopes on Earth’s surface, the Earth-orbiting Hubble Space Telescope, and the Galileo spacecraft en route to Jupiter. Only Galileo saw the explosions directly because they occurred on the back side of Jupiter as seen from Earth. Nevertheless, the fireballs produced by the largest fragments rose above the planet’s limb, and the resulting black smudges in Jupiter’s cloud layers were visible even in small telescopes as Jupiter’s rotation brought them into view. Spectroscopic studies revealed that the impacts had produced or delivered many chemicals such as water, hydrogen cyanide, and carbon monoxide, substances that exist on Jupiter but in much smaller concentrations. The excess carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide remained detectable in the upper atmosphere several years after the event. In addition to its intrinsic interest, the collision of a comet with Jupiter stimulated detailed studies of the effects that cometary impacts would have on Earth (see Earth impact hazard).

In 2009 a dark spot similar to those left behind by the fragments of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 appeared near the south pole of Jupiter. Since only one spot was seen, it was believed that the impacting body was a single body—either a comet or an asteroid—rather than a chain of fragments.