The multiparty elections that finally took place in October 1994 were the culmination of years of effort to reach a peaceful end to the war between Frelimo and Renamo. Frelimo, once a self-described Marxist-Leninist vanguard party and still progressive if not clearly socialist, made several important concessions to the peace process. Mozambique joined the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1984 and adopted their demands to privatize the economy under a structural-adjustment program. Several years later Joaquim Chissano, who had become Mozambique’s president when Machel died in a plane crash in 1986, introduced a new constitution that ended Frelimo’s one-party rule and Mozambique’s identity as a socialist country. That constitution allowed for multiparty elections, though other goals had to be met before elections could be held.

Renamo changed its image as an international pariah known for burning schools and health clinics and became a legitimate political party. Renamo’s leader, Afonso Dhlakama, met with international political leaders and was accepted as a presidential candidate. During the election campaign the United Nations provided military and civilian police, who supervised the activities of their Mozambican counterparts, while the European Union supplied election materials. Although Frelimo and Renamo were the main contenders in the elections, many other smaller parties also emerged, including several founded by Mozambican businessmen who had been in exile for years. There were a dozen presidential candidates and a similar number of parties fielding candidates for the National Assembly. The elections were considered free and fair by international observers, with Frelimo president Chissano garnering the majority of the votes. Renamo, however, was strongly represented in the national government and the National Assembly.

The new government faced the lingering effects of the war, notably the presence of up to two million land mines in the countryside. An international operation has cleared some areas of mines, especially along roads, but many rural areas remain endangered. The effort to demobilize both Frelimo and Renamo forces and form a new, unified military also met with delays and difficulties, and in the mid-1990s soldiers waiting in demobilization camps for weeks without food, money, or prospects for work staged scattered violent uprisings.

In the early 21st century, Mozambique suffered several natural disasters, including drought, an earthquake, and devastating floods. The country’s economic growth, though adversely affected by these events, was bolstered by significant debt relief and by economic reform measures enacted by the government. The country also saw an economic boom as foreign investors were drawn to existing and newly discovered sources of coal and natural gas. The new century also ushered in a change in leadership: in 2001 Chissano announced that he would not stand in the next presidential election. Frelimo, however, maintained control of the presidency when its candidate, Armando Guebuza, was victorious in the 2004 presidential election. He was reelected with 75 percent of the vote in 2009, easily defeating Renamo’s candidate, Dhlakama, and Daviz Simango, who earlier that year had broken from Renamo to form the Mozambique Democratic Movement (MDM). Frelimo also maintained control of the legislature, winning about three-quarters of the seats.

Although the country experienced tremendous economic growth in the 21st century, particularly after 2010, most Mozambicans did not benefit, and more than half of the population remained mired in poverty. That imbalance, as well as fears of political marginalization, heightened tensions between Renamo and the Frelimo-led government. Discussions of political reform did not bear fruit, and Renamo launched a low-level insurgency. Sporadic fighting between Renamo and police or government forces culminated in October 2013 with Renamo’s abrogating the 1992 Rome peace accord that had ended Mozambique’s civil war. A new peace agreement between Renamo and the government was reached in late August 2014, and Dhlakama and Guebuza signed it in a public ceremony on September 5.

The 2014 elections

Given the recent discontent, the October 2014 presidential and legislative elections were hotly contested. With Guebuza constitutionally barred from serving a third term, Frelimo’s candidate was Filipe Nyusi, who faced off against Dhlakama and MDM’s Simango. Although Nyusi handily defeated his opponents—he garnered about 57 percent of the vote, while Dhlakama and Simango won about 36 percent and 6 percent, respectively—Frelimo in general did not perform as strongly as in the previous election. Frelimo managed to maintain the most seats in the legislature, but the party saw its share of seats drop from about three-quarters to slightly more than one-half.

Relationship between the government and Renamo

Friction between the Frelimo-led government and Renamo persisted after the election, with a flare-up in fighting occurring in late 2015 and continuing into the next year. Fighting was centered in the northwestern part of the country, and thousands of Mozambicans there fled to neighboring Malawi. Peace talks between the two sides began in mid-2016, and in December Renamo announced a unilateral two-month truce, which the group extended several times thereafter as both sides continued with ongoing peace discussions. An indication of the progress made, in August 2017 Dhlakama and Nyusi met face-to-face, the first such meeting between the two men since 2015.

Dhlakama’s death in May 2018 left some uncertainty regarding the tenuous peace established between Renamo and the Frelimo-led government, especially since much of the discussions had taken place between Nyusi and Dhlakama. Peace negotiations continued, however, with Dhlakama’s successor, Ossufo Momade. Progress continued, and in August 2019 the two leaders signed a pair of widely acclaimed agreements that were intended to end hostilities and to foster peace and reconciliation. The agreements set the stage for the possibility that the next round of presidential, legislative, and provincial elections, scheduled to be held later that year in October, would be held in a peaceful environment.

Economic developments

Meanwhile, Mozambique’s impressive economic growth slowed dramatically in 2016, partly because of a drop in commodity prices that had begun the previous year as well as an alarming admission by the government that it had a large amount of undeclared debt, later found to be worth about $2 billion. Even more troubling was the fact that some one-fourth of the money could not be accounted for. As a result of the debt admission, the IMF, World Bank, and other donors suspended aid to the country, exacerbating the existing economic problems. The fallout included Mozambique’s default in early 2017 on a high-profile and recently restructured loan. In spite of its challenges, Mozambique was still poised to see impressive economic growth again on the basis of its natural gas reserves, although this was not expected to have a significant impact on the country’s economy for at least a few more years.

The 2019 cyclones

In March 2019 Mozambique was pummeled by Cyclone Idai, which killed about 600 people and devastated a sizable swath of the country. Hardest hit was the port city of Beira, which was almost completely destroyed. This was followed in April by another cyclone, named Kenneth, which hit the northern part of the country and left more than 40 people dead. In all, more than 162,000 Mozambicans were estimated to have been displaced by the two storms.

The 2019 elections

Hopes for a peaceful campaign period after the August peace agreement were largely sustained, although there were incidents of election-related violence in some of the country’s provinces. There were also isolated reports of violence on the day of the election, October 15, as well as reports of voter intimidation and fraud. When the election results were released, Nyusi and Frelimo were declared the overwhelming winners: Nyusi with more than 73 percent of the presidential vote and Frelimo with more than 71 percent of the legislative vote, which allowed them to increase their share in the legislature from slightly more than one-half to a two-thirds majority. Both Renamo and MDM saw their legislative percentages decrease from the last election (Renamo won slightly more than 22 percent while the MDM won only some 4 percent) and lost seats. In the past, Renamo had performed quite well in some provincial assembly elections, and it was expected to do so again, but the party failed to win a majority of the vote in any of them. Under changes to the constitution that replaced presidentially appointed provincial governors with those that were indirectly elected—meeting one of Renamo’s main demands during peace talks in recent years—the election results meant that Renamo would not hold the governor’s post in any province. Renamo had complained of voting intimidation, irregularities, and fraud while the results were still being tabulated—complaints corroborated by some of the election observers—so it came as no surprise when the party filed a legal challenge to the results with the Constitutional Council. The court, however, dismissed the challenge, saying that Renamo had not provided sufficient evidence to support its complaint. Nyusi was sworn in for his second term as president on January 15, 2020.

Insurgency in the north

In 2017 militants associated with the Islamic State began an insurgency in the northern Cabo Delgado province, which led to a humanitarian crisis and economic upheaval. A horrific attack in March 2021 put a halt to the development of the primary gas field project in the area, operated by TotalEnergies. In response to the attack, troops from the Southern African Development Community were deployed to assist the Mozambican army in battling the militants, and Rwandan troops were brought in to secure the gas field project and an important port. The province remained volatile in the following years, with a resurgence of attacks in 2024.

The 2024 elections

With Nyusi constitutionally barred from serving a third term, Frelimo chose Daniel Chapo, the governor of the Inhambane province, as its flag bearer in the presidential and legislative elections that would be held on October 9, 2024. Chapo faced three other candidates: Renamo’s Momade; Venâncio Mondlane, a former Renamo member who was running as an independent candidate; and Lutero Simango, of the MDM. Mondlane, considered a rising star in Mozambican politics with much support among younger Mozambicans, had left Renamo in June and intended to be the presidential candidate of the Democratic Alliance Coalition, but it was not allowed to participate in the election because of procedural errors in the group’s registration, leading Mondlane to run as an independent. He picked up the support of smaller parties, primarily the Optimistic Party for Mozambique’s Development (Podemos).

Prior to the election, there were allegations that “ghost names” had been added to voter rolls, and during the two-week period between election day and when the results were scheduled to be released, opposition parties and international election monitors sounded alarms about having observed blatant electoral irregularities committed in favor of Frelimo—such as ballot stuffing, vote buying, voter intimidation, and the alteration of election results—as well as the lack of transparency with the vote tabulation, casting doubt on the credibility of the election. There were also accounts of Zimbabwe’s ruling party, ZANU-PF, busing its supporters over the border to illegally vote for Chapo and Frelimo, while there were reports of Mozambicans in Renamo strongholds who were unable to vote because their names had been removed from voter rolls. In addition to the concerns about the legitimacy of the election, the murders on October 18 of Mondlane’s attorney, Elvino Dias, and a Podemos official, Paulo Guambe, who were working on the party’s electoral appeal that was to be filed at the Constitutional Council, sparked domestic and international outrage and demands for an investigation. Mondlane, fearing for his safety, stopped appearing in public shortly after the murders and later left the country.

When the National Electoral Commission announced the results on October 24, Chapo was declared the winner, allegedly having won about 70 percent of the vote. He was followed by Mondlane, with about 20 percent, and Momade and Simango were reported to have received about 6 percent and 3 percent, respectively. In the legislative elections, Frelimo was said to have won 78 percent of the seats, an increase from the last election. In a stunning blow, Renamo saw its share of seats fall behind that of Podemos and would lose its position as the largest opposition party after the new legislators were seated in January 2025. Frelimo also dominated in all the provincial assembly elections.

Given all the problems that had already been noted with the electoral process as well as monitoring groups casting doubt on the credibility of the election, it was not unexpected when Renamo and other parties rejected the results. Podemos also filed an appeal against the election results with the Constitutional Council. Meanwhile, Mondlane had begun calling for protests in October in response to the murders of his associates as well as the alleged electoral malfeasance. Protests continued into the following months and led to clashes with police, who responded with harsh measures to suppress the unrest; by early December, more than 75 people had been killed.