The Pamirs are divided into three broad zones according to the characteristics of their rock formations: the northern, central, and southern Pamirs. The southern zone consists of metamorphic rocks (gneiss, quartzite, marble, and others) to which most researchers attribute a Precambrian age (more than 540 million years old). The zone on the whole represents a huge anticline, or series of stratified arches. The central zone of the Pamirs contains limestone, sandstone, and shale rocks of the Jurassic, Triassic, and Permian periods (about 300 to 145 million years ago) and also red-coloured rocks of the Early Cretaceous Period (145 to 100 million years ago). There are some marine rocks from the first half of the Paleozoic Era (i.e., about 540 to 440 million years ago) and lava and tuffaceous rocks of the Paleocene Epoch (65 to 55 million years ago). The structure of the central Pamirs is that of a huge downwarp (an inverted arch caused by fracturing); it is separated from the northern Pamirs by a deep fracture.

In the structure of the northern Pamirs, two subzones can be discerned: a Paleozoic subzone and a Trans-Alai subzone, which is composed of more recent deposits. The Paleozoic subzone of the northern Pamirs is a huge uplift with a complex internal structure. It is separated from the Trans-Alai subzone by the Karakul fracture, through which flows the Kyzylsu-Surkhob-Vakhsh river system. The Trans-Alai subzone is highly complex. Its western part is a fan-shaped anticline in the centre of which emerge Jurassic deposits; radiating outward are more recent, dislocated rocks of the Early Cretaceous period. The eastern part has Cretaceous and Paleocene deposits in a system of conflicting folds. Because of the numerous overthrusts, or horizontal faults, in some places the layers overlap each other. On the north the Trans-Alai subzone is bounded by the deep Trans-Alai fracture, separating the Pamirs from the Alai system. Seismic records register some 2,500 earthquakes each year, with a major event occurring approximately every 15 years. Mudflows from severe storms also constitute a natural hazard.

Climate

The climate of the Pamirs is arid and continental, typified by frigid winters and warm, relatively dry summers. In the western valleys, convectional storms, in combination with cyclonic storms, are common in the summer. Many of the region’s weather patterns are associated with the so-called Afghan winds that form in northwestern Afghanistan, intensify over the horseshoe ridges of the lower Pamirs, and bring summer dust storms and subsequent rain to the western mountains. Snowfall is substantial in the western valleys; the village of Sangvor, for example, at an elevation of 7,000 feet (2,100 metres), has a snow cover of up to 4 feet (1.2 metres) from November to April. The growing season lasts 200 days in Sangvor but reaches 230 days in the deep valley of the Panj at Khorog and Qalaikhum. At the highest elevations, snowfall equals that of the Karakorams to the southeast, and glaciation is considerable. Temperatures range from summer daily highs of 73 °F (23 °C) and winter lows of 1 °F (−17 °C) at Murghob in the high eastern Pamirs to 81 °F (27 °C) in summer and 21 °F (− 6 °C) in winter at Garm in the lower western Pamirs; isolated outposts in the eastern Pamirs record temperatures below −58 °F (−50 °C) in winter.

Plant life

In their vegetation, the eastern Pamirs bear a striking resemblance to the treeless western portion of the Plateau of Tibet. Large expanses of bog, interspersed with plants of the Artemisia and Ephedra genera on higher ground, typify the flora of both regions. The western Pamirs present a striking contrast. The forced emigration of mountain residents, which started in the late 1930s, has halted the overgrazing and cutting of firewood that has continued in adjoining ranges such as the Hindu Kush and the Karakorams. Since the exodus, juniper has regenerated on the valley slopes, caespitose shrubs have become established on the drier margins, and erosion has halted. Watercourses above 6,500 feet (2,000 metres) are lined with willows, thornbushes, oleander, poplars, and occasional birches. High-elevation pastures, above 10,000 feet (3,000 metres), are rarely grazed by cattle.

Animal life

The high tablelands of the eastern Pamirs are the prime breeding area of the mountain goat and the argali (Marco Polo) wild sheep; occasional sightings of blue sheep and urial are reported. Ibex are common where human activity is minimal, and markhor inhabit the lower ranges between the Panj and Vakhsh rivers. Brown bears feed on the abundant marmots, as do wolves. Relatively strict prohibitions against the hunting of wild sheep and goats have resulted in sufficient prey to support a small population of snow leopards. Lammergeiers (bearded vulture) and Himalayan griffons frequent the highest peaks, while partridges, pheasant, and snow cocks are found in the western mountains. Large numbers of migratory waterfowl flying between Siberia and South Asia visit the eastern Pamirs.