Ancient Rome - Expansion, Mediterranean, Republic | Britannica

ancient Rome

Table of Contents

Introduction & Top Questions
Rome from its origins to 264 bc
- Early Rome to 509 bc
  - Early Italy
  - Historical sources on early Rome
  - Rome’s foundation myth
  - The regal period, 753–509 bc
- Early centuries of the Roman Republic
  - Foundation of the republic
  - The struggle of the orders
  - The consulship
  - The dictatorship
  - The Senate
  - The popular assemblies
  - The plebeian tribunate
  - The Law of the Twelve Tables
  - Military tribunes with consular power
  - Social and economic changes
  - The Latin League
- Roman expansion in Italy
  - The Samnite Wars
  - The Pyrrhic War, 280–275 bc
The middle republic (264–133 bc)
- The first two Punic Wars
  - First Punic War (264–241 bc)
  - Second Punic War (218–201 bc)
- The establishment of Roman hegemony in the Mediterranean world
  - Roman expansion in the eastern Mediterranean
  - Roman expansion in the western Mediterranean
  - Explanations of Roman expansion
- Beginnings of provincial administration
The transformation of Rome and Italy during the Middle Republic
- Citizenship and politics in the middle republic
- Culture and religion
- Demographic and economic developments
- Social changes
- Rome and Italy
The Late Republic (133–31 bc)
- The aftermath of the victories
  - Changes in provincial administration
  - Social and economic ills
- The reform movement of the Gracchi (133–121 bc)
  - The program and career of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus
  - The program and career of Gaius Sempronius Gracchus
- The republic (c. 121–91 bc)
  - War against Jugurtha
  - The career of Gaius Marius
- Wars and dictatorship (c. 91–80 bc)
  - Events in Asia
  - Developments in Italy
  - Civil war and the rule of Lucius Sulla
- The Roman state in the two decades after Sulla (79–60 bc)
  - The early career of Pompey
  - Pompey and Crassus
  - Political suspicion and violence
- The final collapse of the Roman Republic (59–44 bc)
  - Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus
  - Political maneuvers
  - Civil war
  - The dictatorship and assassination of Caesar
- The Triumvirate and Octavian’s achievement of sole power
Intellectual life of the Late Republic
- Grammar and rhetoric
- Law and history
- Philosophy and poetry
The Early Roman Empire (31 bc–ad 193)
- The consolidation of the empire under the Julio-Claudians
  - The establishment of the principate under Augustus
  - The Roman Senate and the urban magistracies
  - The equestrian order
  - Administration of Rome and Italy
  - Administration of the provinces
  - Emperor worship
  - The army
  - Foreign policy
  - Economic life
  - Augustan art and literature
  - Appraisal of Augustus
  - The succession
- Growth of the empire under the Flavians and Antonines
  - The year of the four emperors
  - The Flavian emperors
  - The early Antonine emperors: Nerva and Trajan
  - Hadrian and the other Antonine emperors
- The empire in the 2nd century
  - Trend to absolute monarchy
  - Political life
  - Rome and Italy
  - Developments in the provinces
- The creation of a unified civilization
  - Urban centres
  - Latinization
  - Limits of unification
  - Cult of the emperors
  - The economic factor
  - The army
  - Cultural life
The Later Roman Empire
- The dynasty of the Severi (ad 193–235)
  - Septimius Severus
  - Caracalla
  - Macrinus
  - Elagabalus and Severus Alexander
- Religious and cultural life in the 3rd century
  - The rise of Christianity
  - Cultural life from the Antonines to Constantine
- Military anarchy and the disintegration of the empire (235–270)
  - Succession of emperors and usurpers
  - The barbarian invasions
  - Difficulties in the East
- Economic and social crisis
- The recovery of the empire and the establishment of the dominate (270–337)
  - The Illyrian emperors
  - Diocletian
  - Struggle for power
  - The reign of Constantine
- The Roman Empire under the 4th-century successors of Constantine
  - The rule of Constantine’s sons
  - The reign of Julian
  - The reign of Valentinian and Valens
  - The reign of Gratian and Theodosius I
  - Social and economic conditions
  - The remnants of pagan culture
  - The Christian church
- The eclipse of the Roman Empire in the West (c. 395–500) and the German migrations
  - Invasions in the early 5th century
  - The beginning of Germanic hegemony in the West
  - Barbarian kingdoms
  - Analysis of the decline and fall

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