Poincaré conjecture

Poincaré conjecture, in topology, conjecture—now proven to be a true theorem—that every simply connected, closed, three-dimensional manifold is topologically equivalent to S³, which is a generalization of the ordinary sphere to a higher dimension (in particular, the set of points in four-dimensional space that are equidistant from the origin). The conjecture was made in 1904 by the French mathematician Henri Poincaré, who was working on classifying manifolds when he noted that three-dimensional manifolds posed some special problems. This problem became one of the most important unsolved problems in algebraic topology.

“Simply connected” means that a figure, or topological space, contains no holes. “Closed” is a precise term meaning that it contains all its limit points, or accumulation points (the points such that no matter how close one comes to any of them, other points in the figure, or set, will be within that distance). A three-dimensional manifold is a generalization and abstraction of the notion of a curved surface to three dimensions. “Topologically equivalent,” or homeomorphic, means that there exists a continuous one-to-one mapping, which is a generalization of the concept of a function, between two sets. The 3-sphere, or S³, is the set of points in four-dimensional space at some fixed distance to a given point.

Poincaré later extended his conjecture to any dimension, or, more specifically, to the assertion that every compact n-dimensional manifold is homotopy-equivalent to the n-sphere (each can be continuously deformed into the other) if and only if it is homeomorphic to the n-sphere. In other words, the n-sphere is the only bounded n-dimensional space that contains no holes. For n = 3, this reduces to his original conjecture.

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Numbers and Mathematics

For n = 1, the conjecture is trivially true since any compact, closed, simply connected, one-dimensional manifold is homeomorphic to the circle. For n = 2, which corresponds to the ordinary sphere, the conjecture was proved in the 19th century. In 1961 the American mathematician Stephen Smale showed that the conjecture is true for n ≥ 5, in 1983 the American mathematician Michael Freedman showed that it is true for n = 4, and in 2002 the Russian mathematician Grigori Perelman finally closed the solution by proving it true for n = 3. All three mathematicians were awarded a Fields Medal following their proofs. Perelman refused the Fields Medal. Perelman also qualified with his proof to win $1 million—one of the seven million-dollar prizes offered by the Clay Mathematics Institute (CMI) of Cambridge, Mass., for solving a Millennium Problem. Because Perelman published his proof over the Internet rather than in a peer-reviewed journal, he was not immediately awarded the Millennium Problem prize. Other mathematicians confirmed Perelman’s proof in peer-reviewed journals, and in 2010 CMI offered Perelman the million-dollar reward for proving the Poincaré conjecture. As he had done with the Fields Medal, Perelman refused the prize.