Islamic contributions to mathematics began around ad 825, when the Baghdad mathematician Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī wrote his famous treatise al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-jabr wa’l-muqābala (translated into Latin in the 12th century as Algebra et Almucabal, from which the modern term algebra is derived). By the end of the 9th century a significant Greek mathematical corpus, including works of Euclid, Archimedes (c. 285–212/211 bc), Apollonius of Perga (c. 262–190 bc), Ptolemy (fl. ad 127–145), and Diophantus, had been translated into Arabic. Similarly, ancient Babylonian and Indian mathematics, as well as more recent contributions by Jewish sages, were available to Islamic scholars. This unique background allowed the creation of a whole new kind of mathematics that was much more than a mere amalgamation of these earlier traditions. A systematic study of methods for solving quadratic equations constituted a central concern of Islamic mathematicians. A no less central contribution was related to the Islamic reception and transmission of ideas related to the Indian system of numeration, to which they added decimal fractions (fractions such as 0.125, or 1/8).

Al-Khwārizmī’s algebraic work embodied much of what was central to Islamic contributions. He declared that his book was intended to be of “practical” value, yet this definition hardly applies to its contents. In the first part of his book, al-Khwārizmī presented the procedures for solving six types of equations: squares equal roots, squares equal numbers, roots equal numbers, squares and roots equal numbers, squares and numbers equal roots, and roots and numbers equal squares. In modern notation, these equations would be stated ax² = bx, ax² = c, bx = c, ax² + bx = c, ax² + c = bx, and bx + c = ax², respectively. Only positive numbers were considered legitimate coefficients or solutions to equations. Moreover, neither symbolic representation nor abstract symbol manipulation appeared in these problems—even the quantities were written in words rather than in symbols. In fact, all procedures were described verbally. This is nicely illustrated by the following typical problem (recognizable as the modern method of completing the square):

What must be the square which, when increased by 10 of its own roots, amounts to 39? The solution is this: You halve the number of roots, which in the present instance yields 5. This you multiply by itself; the product is 25. Add this to 39; the sum is 64. Now take the root of this, which is 8, and subtract from it half the number of the roots, which is 5; the remainder is 3. This is the root of the square which you sought.

In the second part of his book, al-Khwārizmī used propositions taken from Book II of Euclid’s Elements in order to provide geometric justifications for his procedures. As remarked above, in their original context these were purely geometric propositions. Al-Khwārizmī directly connected them for the first time, however, to the solution of quadratic equations. His method was a hallmark of the Islamic approach to solving equations—systematize all cases and then provide a geometric justification, based on Greek sources. Typical of this approach was the Persian mathematician and poet Omar Khayyam’s Risālah fiʾl-barāhīn ʿalā masāʾil al-jabr waʾl-muqābalah (c. 1070; “Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra”), in which Greek knowledge concerning conic sections (ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas) was applied to questions involving cubic equations.

The use of Greek-style geometric arguments in this context also led to a gradual loosening of certain traditional Greek constraints. In particular, Islamic mathematics allowed, and indeed encouraged, the unrestricted combination of commensurable and incommensurable magnitudes within the same framework, as well as the simultaneous manipulation of magnitudes of different dimensions as part of the solution of a problem. For example, the Egyptian mathematician Abu Kāmil (c. 850–930) treated the solution of a quadratic equation as a number rather than as a line segment or an area. Combined with the decimal system, this approach was fundamental in developing a more abstract and general conception of number, which was essential for the eventual creation of a full-fledged abstract idea of an equation.

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Numbers and Mathematics

Commerce and abacists in the European Renaissance

Greek and Islamic mathematics were basically “academic” enterprises, having little interaction with day-to-day matters involving building, transportation, and commerce. This situation first began to change in Italy in the 13th and 14th centuries. In particular, the rise of Italian mercantile companies and their use of modern financial instruments for trade with the East, such as letters of credit, bills of exchange, promissory notes, and interest calculations, led to a need for improved methods of bookkeeping.

Leonardo Pisano, known to history as Fibonacci, studied the works of Kāmil and other Arabic mathematicians as a boy while accompanying his father’s trade mission to North Africa on behalf of the merchants of Pisa. In 1202, soon after his return to Italy, Fibonacci wrote Liber Abbaci (“Book of the Abacus”). Although it contained no specific innovations, and although it strictly followed the Islamic tradition of formulating and solving problems in purely rhetorical fashion, it was instrumental in communicating the Hindu-Arabic numerals to a wider audience in the Latin world. Early adopters of the “new” numerals became known as abacists, regardless of whether they used the numerals for calculating and recording transactions or employed an abacus for doing the actual calculations. Soon numerous abacist schools sprang up to teach the sons of Italian merchants the “new math.”

The abacists first began to introduce abbreviations for unknowns in the 14th century—another important milestone toward the full-fledged manipulation of abstract symbols. For instance, c stood for cossa (“thing”), ce for censo (“square”), cu for cubo (“cube”), and R for Radice (“root”). Even combinations of these symbols were introduced for obtaining higher powers. This trend eventually led to works such as the first French algebra text, Nicolas Chuquet’s Triparty en la science des nombres (1484; “The Science of Numbers in Three Parts”). As part of a discussion on how to use the Hindu-Arabic numerals, Triparty contained relatively complicated symbolic expressions, such as R²14pR²180 (meaning: ).

Chuquet also introduced a more flexible way of denoting powers of the unknown—i.e., 12² (for 12 squares) and even m12^m (to indicate −12x⁻²). This was, in fact, the first time that negative numbers were explicitly used in European mathematics. Chuquet could now write an equation as follows: .3.²p.12 egaulx a .9.¹ (meaning: 3x² + 12 = 9x).

Following the ancient tradition, coefficients were always positive, and thus the above was only one of several possible equations involving an unknown and squares of it. Indeed, Chuquet would say that the above was an impossible equation, since its solution would involve the square root of −63. This illustrates the difficulties involved in reaching a more general and flexible concept of number: the same mathematician would allow negative numbers in a certain context and even introduce a useful notation for dealing with them, but he would completely avoid their use in a different, albeit closely connected, context.

In the 15th century, the German-speaking countries developed their own version of the abacist tradition: the Cossists, including mathematicians such as Michal Stiffel, Johannes Scheubel, and Christoff Rudolff. There one finds the first use of specific symbols for the arithmetic operations, equality, roots, and so forth. The subsequent process of standardizing symbols was, nevertheless, lengthy and involved.