antimatter

antimatter, substance composed of subatomic particles that have the mass, electric charge, and magnetic moment of the electrons, protons, and neutrons of ordinary matter but for which the electric charge and magnetic moment are opposite in sign. The antimatter particles corresponding to electrons, protons, and neutrons are called positrons (e⁺), antiprotons (p), and antineutrons (n); collectively they are referred to as antiparticles. The electrical properties of antimatter being opposite to those of ordinary matter, the positron has a positive charge and the antiproton a negative charge; the antineutron, though electrically neutral, has a magnetic moment opposite in sign to that of the neutron. Matter and antimatter cannot coexist at close range for more than a small fraction of a second because they collide with and annihilate each other, releasing large quantities of energy in the form of gamma rays or elementary particles.

The concept of antimatter first arose in theoretical analysis of the duality between positive and negative charge. The work of P.A.M. Dirac on the energy states of the electron implied the existence of a particle identical in every respect but one—that is, with positive instead of negative charge. Such a particle, called the positron, is not to be found in ordinary stable matter. However, it was discovered in 1932 among particles produced in the interactions of cosmic rays in matter and thus provided experimental confirmation of Dirac’s theory.

The life expectancy or duration of the positron in ordinary matter is very short. Unless the positron is moving extremely fast, it will be drawn close to an ordinary electron by the attraction between opposite charges. A collision between the positron and the electron results in their simultaneous disappearance, their masses (m) being converted into energy (E) in accordance with the Einstein mass-energy relation E = mc², where c is the velocity of light. This process is called annihilation, and the resultant energy is emitted in the form of gamma rays (γ), high-energy quanta of electromagnetic radiation. The inverse reaction γ → e⁺ + e⁻ can also proceed under appropriate conditions, and the process is called electron-positron creation, or pair production.

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The Dirac theory predicts that an electron and a positron, because of Coulomb attraction of their opposite charges, will combine to form an intermediate bound state, just as an electron and a proton combine to form a hydrogen atom. The e⁺e⁻ bound system is called positronium. The annihilation of positronium into gamma rays has been observed. Its measured lifetime depends on the orientation of the two particles and is on the order of 10⁻¹⁰–10⁻⁷ second, in agreement with that computed from Dirac’s theory.

The Dirac wave equation also describes the behaviour of both protons and neutrons and thus predicts the existence of their antiparticles. Antiprotons can be produced by bombarding protons with protons. If enough energy is available—that is, if the incident proton has a kinetic energy of at least 5.6 gigaelectron volts (GeV; 10⁹ eV)—extra particles of proton mass will appear according to the formula E = mc². Such energies became available in the 1950s at the Bevatron particle accelerator at Berkeley, California. In 1955 a team of physicists led by Owen Chamberlain and Emilio Segrè observed that antiprotons are produced by high-energy collisions. Antineutrons also were discovered at the Bevatron by observing their annihilation in matter with a consequent release of high-energy electromagnetic radiation.

By the time the antiproton was discovered, a host of new subatomic particles had also been discovered; all these particles are now known to have corresponding antiparticles. Thus, there are positive and negative muons, positive and negative pi-mesons, and the K-meson and the anti-K-meson, plus a long list of baryons and antibaryons. Most of these newly discovered particles have too short a lifetime to be able to combine with electrons. The exception is the positive muon, which, together with an electron, has been observed to form a muonium atom.

In 1995 physicists at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Geneva created the first antiatom, the antimatter counterpart of an ordinary atom—in this case, antihydrogen, the simplest antiatom, consisting of a positron in orbit around an antiproton nucleus. They did so by firing antiprotons through a xenon-gas jet. In the strong electric fields surrounding the xenon nuclei, some antiprotons created pairs of electrons and positrons; a few of the positrons thus produced then combined with the antiprotons to form antihydrogen. Each antiatom survived for only about 40-billionths of a second before it came into contact with ordinary matter and was annihilated. CERN has since produced larger amounts of antihydrogen that can last 1,000 seconds. A comparison of the spectrum of the antihydrogen atom with the well-studied spectrum of hydrogen could reveal small differences between matter and antimatter, which would have important implications for theories of how matter formed in the early universe.

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In 2010 physicists using the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton, New York, used a billion collisions between gold ions to create 18 instances of the heaviest antiatom, the nucleus of antihelium-4, which consists of two antiprotons and two antineutrons. Since antihelium-4 is produced so rarely in nuclear collisions, its detection in space by an instrument such as the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on the International Space Station would imply the existence of large amounts of antimatter in the universe.

Although positrons are readily created in the collisions of cosmic rays, there is no evidence for the existence of large amounts of antimatter in the universe. The Milky Way Galaxy appears to consist entirely of matter, as there are no indications for regions where matter and antimatter meet and annihilate to produce characteristic gamma rays. The implication that matter completely dominates antimatter in the universe appears to be in contradiction to Dirac’s theory, which, supported by experiment, shows that particles and antiparticles are always created in equal numbers from energy. (See electron-positron pair production.) The energetic conditions of the early universe should have created equal numbers of particles and antiparticles; mutual annihilation of particle-antiparticle pairs, however, would have left nothing but energy. In the universe today, photons (energy) outnumber protons (matter) by a factor of one billion. This suggests that most of the particles created in the early universe were indeed annihilated by antiparticles, while one in a billion particles had no matching antiparticle and so survived to form the matter observed today in stars and galaxies. The tiny imbalance between particles and antiparticles in the early universe is referred to as matter-antimatter asymmetry, and its cause remains a major unsolved puzzle for cosmology and particle physics. One possible explanation is that it involves a phenomenon known as CP violation, which gives rise to a small but significant difference in the behaviour of particles called K-mesons and their antiparticles. This explanation for the asymmetry gained credence in 2010, when CP violation was seen in the decay of B-mesons, particles that are heavier than K-mesons and thus able to account for more of the asymmetry.