The manner in which the child passes through the birth canal in the second stage of labour depends upon the position in which it is lying and the shape of the mother’s pelvis. The sequence of events described in the following paragraphs is that which frequently occurs when the mother’s pelvis is of the usual type and the child is lying with the top of its head lowermost and transversely placed and the back of its head (occiput) directed toward the left side of the mother (see onset of labour in the figure). The top of the head, accordingly, is leading, and its long axis lies transversely.

The force derived from the uterine contractions and the bearing-down efforts exerts pressure on the child’s buttocks and is transmitted along the vertebral column to drive the head into and through the pelvis. Because of the attachment of the spine to the base of the skull, the back of the head advances more rapidly than the brow with the result that the head becomes flexed (i.e., the neck is bent) until the chin comes to lie against the breastbone (see flexion in the figure). As a consequence of this flexion mechanism, the top of the head becomes the leading pole and the ovoid head circumference that entered the birth canal is succeeded by a smaller, almost circular circumference, the long diameter of which is about 2 cm (0.75 inch) shorter than that of the earlier circumference.

As the head descends more deeply into the birth canal, it meets the resistance of the bony pelvis and of the slinglike pelvic floor, or diaphragm, which slopes downward, forward, and inward. When the back of the head, the leading part of the child, is forced against this sloping wall on the left side, it naturally is shunted forward and to the right as it advances (see internal rotation of head in the figure). This internal rotation of the head brings its longest diameter into relation with the longest diameter of the pelvic outlet and thus greatly assists in the adaptation of the advancing head to the configuration of the cavity through which it is to pass.

Further descent of the head directly downward in the direction in which it has been traveling is opposed by the lower portion of the mother’s bony pelvis, behind, and the resisting soft parts that are interposed between it and the opening of the vagina (see internal rotation of head in the figure). Less resistance, on the other hand, is offered by the soft and dilatable walls of the lower birth canal, which is directed forward and upward. The back of the child’s head accordingly advances along the lower birth canal, distending its walls and dilating its cavity while the head progresses. Soon the back of the child’s neck becomes impinged against the bones of the pelvis, in front, and the chin is forced farther and farther away from the breastbone. Thus, as extension (bending of the head backward) takes the place of flexion, the occiput, brow, eye sockets, nose, mouth, and chin pass successively through the external opening of the lower birth canal and are born (see extension in the figure).

The neck, which was twisted during internal rotation of the head, untwists as soon as the head is born. Almost immediately after its birth, therefore, the top of the head is turned toward the left and backward.

As the child’s lower shoulder advances, it meets the sloping resistance of the pelvic floor on the right side and is shunted forward and to the left toward the middle of the pelvis in front. This position brings the long diameter of the shoulder circumference into relation with the anteroposterior, or long diameter, of the pelvic cavity. Because of this internal rotation of the shoulders, the top of the head undergoes further external rotation backward and to the left so that the child’s face comes to look directly at the inner aspect of the mother’s right thigh (see external rotation of head in the figure).

Soon after the shoulders rotate, the one in front appears in the vulvovaginal orifice and remains in this position while the other shoulder is swept forward by a lateral bending of the trunk through the same upward and forward curve that was followed by the head as it was being born. After this shoulder is delivered, the shoulder in front and the rest of the child’s body are expelled almost immediately and without any special mechanism.

An average of about one hour and 45 minutes is required for the completion of the second stage of labour in women who give birth for the first time. In subsequent labours the average duration of the stage of expulsion is somewhat shorter.