density current
- Related Topics:
- Richardson number
- current
density current, any current in either a liquid or a gas that is kept in motion by the force of gravity acting on differences in density. A density difference can exist between two fluids because of a difference in temperature, salinity, or concentration of suspended sediment. Density currents in nature are exemplified by those currents that flow along the bottom of oceans or lakes. Such subaqueous currents occur because some of the water in an ocean or lake is colder or saltier or contains more suspended sediment and, thus, is denser than the surrounding waters. As a consequence, it sinks and flows along the bottom under the effect of gravity. The difference in density, moreover, slows down the mixing of the current with the overlying waters, enabling it to maintain itself for a relatively long distance.
Density currents are of considerable practical importance. For example, the deposition of sediment from turbidity currents—i.e., density currents in which the density difference is caused by suspended sediment—in lakes may result in a rapid decrease of reservoir capacity. Equally significant, the industrial discharge of large amounts of heated water may generate density currents that have adverse effects on neighbouring human or animal communities. Because of such considerations, many experimental studies on the properties of density currents have been undertaken.
Turbidity currents have been investigated in the laboratory and have been observed directly in lakes and ocean basins. Sedimentary rocks that are thought to have originated from ancient turbidity currents are called turbidites and are common in the geological record.
Density currents originating from marginal seas
Ocean waters with the greatest density have their origins at high latitudes and in marginal seas. The intense atmospheric cooling characteristic of high latitudes and the consequent rejection of brine during ice formation contribute to the development of cold salty water. This dense water fills the basins of the Nordic seas (the oceanic region bounded by Iceland, Greenland, Scandinavia, and northern Russia) and the continental shelf of Antarctica. Furthermore, in marginal seas where evaporation overcomes the input of fresh water from river runoff and precipitation—such as in the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea—warm salty water collects near the bottom of the basin.
Since the dense water that accumulates in marginal seas and basins or above the continental shelves possesses a greater density than that of the surrounding water, it moves downslope. Sometimes it must move through a topographic constriction or over a sill to reach the continental slope, and thus the currents containing such water are often called “dense overflows.” Notable examples of such overflows occur in the Denmark Strait, in the Faroe Bank Channel, in the Strait of Gibraltar, at the mouth of the Red Sea, and on the shelves of the Weddell Sea and Ross Sea in Antarctica.
As the water descends along the continental slope, it is also affected by the Coriolis force and friction on the seafloor (bottom drag). The effect of the Coriolis force is to deflect the downslope movement of the current to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. Density current velocity and density have been measured by equipment placed at several fixed locations on the continental slope in the western Atlantic, and the movement of density currents has been simulated in so-called “stream-tube models” that balance the density gradient with the Coriolis force and bottom drag to determine the trajectory of the density current over the slope.
After the density current adjusts to the influence of these forces, it moves downward at an angle along the slope. Eventually, the current will reach the bottom of the ocean and fill the lowest part of the basin. This phenomenon has been observed in water originating on the continental slope of the Weddell Sea, and this water forms the Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW). Alternatively, an intermediate layer is created if the density difference with the surrounding waters reaches zero before the density current arrives at the bottom of the ocean. In this scenario, the current spreads horizontally at an intermediate depth. Such intermediate layers have been identified in studies monitoring the overflow occurring in the Mediterranean Sea.
Mediterranean overflow current
With a temperature of 13.4 °C (56.1 °F) and a salinity of 38.4 practical salinity units (psu, which are roughly equivalent to parts per thousand), dense water forming in the Mediterranean Sea is both warmer and saltier than the North Atlantic Central Water (NACW). The NACW, which sits above the Mediterranean outflow of dense water, has a temperature that ranges from 11.4 to 12.5 °C (52.5 to 54.5 °F) and a salinity that ranges from 35.6 to 35.7 psu. Dense Mediterranean water moves westward into the North Atlantic through the bottom 100 metres (about 300 feet) of the Strait of Gibraltar, while North Atlantic water flows eastward through the upper part of the strait into the Mediterranean Sea. Given the narrow strait, the dense water accelerates to speeds of approximately 1 metre (about 3 feet) per second at the sill in the western part of the strait. After entering the Atlantic Ocean, the dense Mediterranean overflow current descends along the continental slope. Initially, the vertical descent of the slope is 4 metres for every horizontal kilometre (21 feet per mile) for the first 20 km (12 miles), and it increases to 12 metres for every horizontal kilometre (63 feet per mile) thereafter along the slope. On the steeper part of the slope, the density current reaches its maximum velocity of 1.2 metres (about 4 feet) per second. The Coriolis force causes the dense water to bank to the right against the continental slope along the northern flank of the Gulf of Cádiz, where it flows as a nearly geostrophic current (that is, a current flowing perpendicular to the path dictated by the horizontal pressure gradient). The Mediterranean overflow current plunges to a depth of only 800 to 1,300 metres (about 2,600 to 4,300 feet) because it entrains, or draws in, the NACW. Later its salinity and temperature signature appears in the North Atlantic as the so-called Mediterranean Salt Tongue, a lobe of highly saline water extending outward from the Strait of Gibraltar.
In the past it was thought that this salinity and temperature distribution in the North Atlantic was the product of the spreading of the Mediterranean overflow. In the 1990s, however, studies associated the salinity and temperature distribution in the Mediterranean Salt Tongue with the westward drift of eddies formed by the Mediterranean overflow current. These Mediterranean eddies were named “Meddies.” They spin off from the geostrophic dense current as it flows along the continental slope, particularly near capes such as Cape St. Vincent in Portugal. The Meddies contribute to the spreading of the salinity and temperature signature of the density current as they gradually mix into surrounding waters during their movement westward. In addition, the Meddies might abruptly discard their temperature and salinity signature through mixing when they encounter islands and seamounts and subsequently break apart.