Questioned-document analysis

Questioned-document analysis involves a number of areas of forensic inquiry. It is an apprenticeship field, requiring years of practice and work with an experienced examiner. The most familiar area of questioned-document examination is handwriting analysis. Here the examiner is called upon to determine if a particular person was the author of a document. The examiner compares characteristics of the questioned document with those of a document either previously written by the suspect or purposely taken as a known handwriting sample, also called an exemplar. There are no universal standards for the number of characteristics that must be present in order for the document examiner to conclude that a particular person was the author of a document. It is up to the individual examiner to determine when there is sufficient evidence.

Forensic document examiners may be called upon to determine if a particular instrument made a typewritten or printed document or if a particular copier made a copy of a document. Unless there are some unusual characteristics or defects in the instrument, it is generally not possible to answer such questions definitively.

Document examiners are also called upon to examine alterations in documents such as erasures, addition of material, obliterated writing, and charred documents. Such work involves chemical analysis as well as physical and observational techniques. Examiners are frequently asked to determine the age of a document, particularly those that are handwritten in ink. A document may consist of a number of entries made at different times, and questions may arise as to whether a particular entry was made at a purported time. In other cases, the age of an entire document may be called into question. The determination of the age of the ink on a document is accomplished by uncovering changes in the chemical composition of the ink that take place over time. A similar type of analysis may also be done on the paper, especially if ink was not used to write the document.

Toxicology

Toxicology is the analysis and identification of poisons and drugs in the body. Forensic toxicology is the application of such analysis to cases in which death or injury may have been caused by the ingestion of drugs or poisons. By far the most common kinds of cases examined by forensic toxicologists involve drunk or drugged driving.

Every U.S. state has a set of laws that govern the use of alcohol while operating or driving a motor vehicle. Each state sets limits for the permissible level of alcohol in a driver’s bloodstream. Usually there are two categories of intoxication: “impaired” and “under the influence.” The latter requires a higher concentration of alcohol. In many states, merely having a blood alcohol level greater than the limit constitutes an offense. In other states, there must also be a demonstration that the driver was actually impaired or under the influence of alcohol. That demonstration is accomplished by requiring the driver to undergo a series of motor coordination tests.

The role of the forensic toxicologist in such cases is to measure the quantity of alcohol in the body, usually by blood analysis, and then to explain the effects of that quantity on the person’s ability to drive. Toxicologists are often asked to “back calculate” what the alcohol concentration in a person’s blood may have been at an earlier time, although this can be a difficult undertaking owing to the large number of variables.

Forensic toxicologists have also been called upon to interpret cases in which a driver has been using a drug—usually illicit—and then driving. There are no established limits for the amount of a drug that can be present in order for a driver to be impaired or under the influence. Therefore, a forensic toxicologist must be intimately familiar with the effects of many types of drugs on motor coordination. In many states, the presence of any amount of a drug that can be reliably detected by a forensic toxicologist constitutes enough to affect the driver.

In addition to drunk or drugged driving cases, forensic toxicologists handle cases in which there has been an overdose of an illicit drug, which may contribute to or cause death. The toxicologist must be able to determine blood levels of the drugs or their metabolites and to interpret those findings and ascertain the role that the drug played in the person’s death. In many cases, more than one drug is taken or a drug may be taken in conjunction with alcohol, and the toxicologist must be able to interpret the interactions among those substances. In such cases, the toxicologist works closely with the forensic pathologist.

In recent years, many companies and public organizations such as police and fire departments have been concerned about the use of drugs by employees on the job. Many drug-testing programs have been set up to measure drug concentrations in workers on a routine or random basis. Such laboratories virtually always employ one or more forensic toxicologists to maintain standards, offer training to technicians, and take overall responsibility for the laboratory. Most such laboratories test urine samples donated by employees, but some also test hair taken from the head. Hair is superior to urine as a medium for drug testing in that it is less invasive to obtain and can provide a drug history of many months’ duration. Also, hair testing is not subject to some of the manipulations that plague urine testing, such as the use of diuretics to flush the drugs from the urine.