Evolution of galaxies and quasars

The study of the origin and evolution of galaxies and the quasar phenomenon has only just begun. Many models of galaxy formation and evolution have been constructed on the basis of what we know about conditions in the early universe, which is in turn based on models of the expansion of the universe after the big bang (the primordial explosion from which the universe is thought to have originated) and on the characteristics of the cosmic microwave background (the observed photons that show us the light-filled universe as it was when it was a few hundred thousand years old).

When the universe had expanded to be cool enough for matter to remain in neutral atoms without being instantly ionized by radiation, structure apparently had already been established in the form of density fluctuations. At a crucial point in time, there condensed from the expanding matter small clouds (protogalaxies) that could collapse under their own gravitational field eventually to form galaxies.

For the latter half of the 20th century, there were two competing models of galaxy formation: “top-down” and “bottom-up.” In the top-down model, galaxies formed out of the collapse of much larger gas clouds. In the bottom-up model, galaxies formed from the merger of smaller entities that were the size of globular clusters. In both models the angular momentum of the original clouds determined the form of the galaxy that eventually evolved. It is thought that a protogalaxy with a large amount of angular momentum tended to form a flat, rapidly rotating system (a spiral galaxy), whereas one with very little angular momentum developed into a more nearly spherical system (an elliptical galaxy).

The transition from the 20th to the 21st century coincided with a dramatic transition in our understanding of the evolution of galaxies. It is no longer believed that galaxies have evolved smoothly and alone. Indeed, it has become clear that collisions between galaxies have occurred all during their evolution—and these collisions, far from being rare events, were the mechanism by which galaxies developed in the distant past and are the means by which they are changing their structure and appearance even now. Evidence for this new understanding of galactic evolution comes primarily from two sources: more detailed studies of nearby galaxies with new, more sensitive instruments and deep surveys of extremely distant galaxies, seen when the universe was young.

Recent surveys of nearby galaxies, including the Milky Way Galaxy, have shown evidence of past collisions and capture of galaxies. For the Milky Way the most conspicuous example is the Sagittarius Galaxy, which has been absorbed by our Galaxy. Now its stars lie spread out across the sky, its seven globular clusters intermingling with the globular clusters of the Milky Way Galaxy. Long tails of stars around the Milky Way were formed by the encounter and act as clues to the geometry of the event. A second remnant galaxy, known as the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy, can also be traced by the detection of star streams in the outer parts of our Galaxy. These galaxies support the idea that the Milky Way Galaxy is a mix of pieces, formed by the amalgamation of many smaller galaxies.

The Andromeda Galaxy (M31) also has a past involving collisions and accretion. Its peculiar close companion, M32, shows a structure that indicates that it was formerly a normal, more massive galaxy that lost much of its outer parts and possibly all of its globular clusters to M31 in a past encounter. Deep surveys of the outer parts of the Andromeda Galaxy have revealed huge coherent structures of star streams and clouds, with properties indicating that these include the outer remnants of smaller galaxies “eaten” by the giant central galaxy, as well as clouds of M31 stars ejected by the strong tidal forces of the collision.

More spectacular are galaxies presently in the process of collision and accretion in the more distant, but still nearby, universe. The symptoms of the collision are the distortion of the galaxies’ shape (especially that of the spiral arms), the formation of giant arcs of stars by tidal action, and the enhanced rate of star and star cluster formation. Some of the most massive and luminous young star clusters observed anywhere lie in the regions where two galaxies have come together, with their gas and dust clouds colliding and merging in a spectacular cosmic fireworks display.

A second type of evidence for the fact that galaxies grow by merging comes from very deep surveys of the very distant universe, especially those carried out with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). These surveys, especially the Hubble Deep Field and the Hubble Ultra Deep Field, found galaxies so far away that the light observed by the HST left them when they were very young, only a few hundred million years old. This enables the direct detection and measurement of young galaxies as they were when the universe was young. The result is a view of a very different universe of galaxies. Instead of giant elliptical galaxies and grand spirals, the universe in its early years was populated with small, irregular objects that looked like mere fragments. These were the building blocks that eventually formed bigger galaxies such as the Milky Way. Many show active formation of stars that are deficient in heavy elements because many of the heavy elements had not yet been created when these stars were formed.

The rate of star formation in these early times was significant, but it did not reach a peak until about one billion years later. Galaxies from this time show a maximum in the amount of excited hydrogen, which indicates a high rate of star formation, as young, very hot stars are necessary for exciting interstellar hydrogen so that it can be detected. Since that time, so much matter has been locked up in stars (especially white dwarfs) that not enough interstellar dust and gas are available to achieve such high rates of star formation.

An important development that has helped our understanding of the way galaxies form is the great success of computer simulations. High-speed calculations of the gravitational history of assemblages of stars, interstellar matter, and dark matter suggest that after the big bang the universe developed as a networklike arrangement of material, with gradual condensation of masses where the strands of the network intersected. In simulations of this process, massive galaxies form, but each is surrounded by a hundred or so smaller objects. The small objects may correspond to the dwarf galaxies, such as those that surround the Milky Way Galaxy but of which only a dozen or so remain, the rest having presumably been accreted by the main galaxy. Such computer models, called “n-body simulations,” are especially successful in mimicking galaxy collisions and in helping to explain the presence of various tidal arms and jets observed by astronomers.

In summary, the current view of galactic history is that present-day galaxies are a mix of giant objects that accreted lesser galaxies in their vicinities, especially early in the formation of the universe, together with some remnant lesser, or dwarf, galaxies that have not yet come close enough to a more massive galaxy to be captured. The expansion of the universe gradually decreases the likelihood of such captures, so some of the dwarfs may survive to old age—eventually dying, like their giant cousins, when all of their stars become dim white dwarfs or black holes and slowly disappear.