Induction of hallucinations
- Key People:
- Jean-Étienne-Dominique Esquirol
Direct brain stimulation
Hallucinatory experiences can be brought about through direct stimulation of the exposed brain, as in cases of local cortical arousal under the neurosurgeon’s stimulating electrode. Under circumstances other than surgery or such situations as, for example, some forms of epilepsy, however, there must be a decrease in the forces that ordinarily dominate consciousness before hallucinations occur. These inhibiting forces require for their maintenance a relatively high level of sensory input of appropriate quality and frequency.
Sleep
The ways in which the reticular network of cells in the brainstem acts as a regulatory and integrating system for these relationships remain under intensive study. Since levels of brain arousal during sleep and wakefulness also are mediated via reticular formation activity, sleeping and dreaming merit consideration as hallucinatory activities. In the process of falling asleep, a person passes through a period of “partial sleep” in which awareness of the environment drops rapidly but in which the level of cortical arousal (which falls less rapidly) remains sufficiently high to permit some appreciation of external stimulation. Thus, the so-called hypnagogic (induced by drowsiness) phenomena occur.
Hypnagogic hallucinations
Common hypnagogic hallucinations may be visual (e.g., scenes from the previous few hours appear) or auditory (e.g., one seems to hear one’s name called). A frequently occurring hypnagogic hallucination is the sensation of loss of support or balance, perhaps accompanied by a fragmentary “dream” of falling, followed immediately by a jerking reflex recovery movement (the myoclonic jerk) that may jolt the sleeper back into wakefulness.
Dreams
The first stages of sleep appear to be dream-free. During this phase, measurements taken by an electroencephalograph (EEG) will record the sleeper producing large, slow brain waves. Sensory stimuli from without (such as noise or cold) or stimuli from within the body (such as dyspepsia or anxiety), plus a somewhat regular spontaneous fluctuation in the depth of sleep, will periodically (perhaps every 90 minutes or so) bring the sleeper into a state that favours perceptual release, in which case dreaming tends to take place. This state (with specific EEG signs and rapid movements of the closed eyes) probably occurs several times every night, so that more than 20 percent of an average person’s sleep is taken up with several dreams, each of about 10 to 15 minutes’ duration. At the time of awakening, the typical sleeper again passes through a period of perceptual release, often experiencing dreams that increase in intensity, and perhaps may have the hallucinations of “partial sleep,” these now being called hypnopompic (associated with a semiconscious state before awakening) experiences.
A simplified but perhaps helpful way of characterizing these conditions might be to imagine someone standing at a window opposite a fireplace, looking out at a garden in the sunset. The person may be thoroughly absorbed by the view of the outside world and fail to visualize the interior of the room at all. As it becomes darker outside, images of the objects in the room behind the person are reflected dimly in the window glass. For a time, then, the viewer may see either the garden (if gazing into the distance) or the reflection of the room’s interior (when focusing on the glass). Night falls, but the fire still illuminates the room. The watcher now sees in the glass a reflection of the interior of the room, which appears to be outside the window. This illusion becomes dimmer as the fire dies down, and, finally, when it is dark both outside and within, nothing more is seen. If the fire flares up from time to time, the visions in the glass reappear.
Another analogy might be that dreams, like the stars, are shining all the time, even though the stars are not often seen in daytime. If, however, there is an eclipse of the sun, or if a viewer watches the sky after sunset or before sunrise, then the stars, like dreams, though often forgotten, may be seen.
A more brain-related concept is that of a continuous information-processing activity (a kind of “preconscious stream”) that is influenced by both conscious and unconscious forces and that constitutes the potential supply of dream content. Hallucinations in the waking state also would involve the same phenomenon, produced by a somewhat different set of psychological or physiological circumstances.
Excessive excitation
It is valuable to consider the probable relationship between the level of physiological arousal in the brain and information processing during the waking state. The functions of consciousness apparently reach an optimal point in relation to level of arousal, beyond which they disorganize progressively as arousal increases. The presence of marked arousal (produced, for example, by extreme anxiety or by chemical stimulation of the brain) is accompanied by marked disturbance of concentration. Again, contact with external stimuli is impaired, this time by excessive input that “jams the circuits,” in which case spontaneous dissociative experiences may occur. As arousal increases further, the hallucinations of full-blown delirium or psychotic excitement may appear with frightening vividness, intensity, and emotional accompaniment. Greater brain arousal might result in generalized seizure phenomena, as in epilepsy.