life span
life span, the period of time between the birth and death of an organism.
It is a commonplace that all organisms die. Some die after only a brief existence, like that of the mayfly, whose adult life burns out in a day, and others like that of the gnarled bristlecone pines, which have lived thousands of years. The limits of the life span of each species appear to be determined ultimately by heredity. Locked within the code of the genetic material are instructions that specify the age beyond which a species cannot live given even the most favourable conditions. And many environmental factors act to diminish that upper age limit.
Measurement of life span
The maximum life span is a theoretical number whose exact value cannot be determined from existing knowledge about an organism; it is often given as a rough estimate based on the longest-lived organism of its species known to date. A more meaningful measure is the average life span; this is a statistical concept that is derived by the analysis of mortality data for populations of each species. A related term is the expectation of life, a hypothetical number computed for humans from mortality tables drawn up by insurance companies. Life expectancy represents the average number of years that a group of persons, all born at the same time, might be expected to live, and it is based on the changing death rate over many past years.
The concept of life span implies that there is an individual whose existence has a definite beginning and end. What constitutes the individual in most cases presents no problem: among organisms that reproduce sexually the individual is a certain amount of living substance capable of maintaining itself alive and endowed with hereditary features that are in some measure unique. In some organisms, however, extensive and apparently indefinite growth takes place and reproduction may occur by division of a single parent organism, as in many protists, including bacteria, algae, and protozoans. If these divisions are incomplete, a colony results; if the parts separate, genetically identical organisms are formed. In order to consider life span in such organisms, the individual must be defined arbitrarily since the organisms are continually dividing. In a strict sense, the life spans in such instances are not comparable to those forms that are sexually produced.
The beginning of an organism can be defined by the formation of the fertilized egg in sexual forms; or by the physical separation of the new organism in asexual forms (many invertebrate animals and many plants). In animals generally, birth is considered to be the beginning of the life span. The timing of birth, however, is so different in various animals that it is only a poor criterion. In many marine invertebrates the hatchling larva consists of relatively few cells, not nearly so far along toward adulthood as a newborn mammal. For even among mammals, variations are considerable. A kangaroo at birth is about an inch long and must develop further in the pouch, hardly comparable to a newborn deer, who within minutes is walking about. If life spans of different kinds of organisms are to be compared, it is essential that these variations be accounted for. The end of an organism’s existence results when irreversible changes have occurred to such an extent that the individual no longer actively retains its organization. There is thus a brief period during which it is impossible to say whether the organism is still alive, but this time is so short relative to the total length of life that it creates no great problem in determining life span.
Some organisms seem to be potentially immortal. Unless an accident puts an end to life, they appear to be fully capable of surviving indefinitely. This faculty has been attributed to certain fishes and reptiles, which appear to be capable of unlimited growth. Without examining the various causes of death in detail (see death) a distinction can be made between death as a result of internal changes (i.e., aging) and death as a result of some purely external factor, such as an accident. It is notable that the absence of aging processes is correlated with the absence of individuality. In other words, organisms in which the individual is difficult to define, as in colonial forms, appear not to age.
Peter W. FrankPlants
Plants grow old as surely as do animals. However, a generally accepted definition of age in plants has not yet been realized. If the age of an individual plant is that time interval between the reproductive process that gave rise to the individual and the death of the individual, the age attained may be given readily for some kinds of plants but not for others. The Table lists maximum ages, both estimated and verified, for some seed plants.
| plant | maximum age in years | locale of verified specimen | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| estimated | verified | |||
| *Exaggerated estimates for this historic specimen reach 6,000 years. | ||||
| **Scars on rootstock counted. | ||||
| ***According to Buddhist and Roman history. | ||||
| conifers | common juniper (Juniperus communis) | 2,000 | 544 | Kola Peninsula, northeastern Russia |
| Norway spruce (Picea abies) | 1,200 | 350–400 | Eichstätt, Bavaria | |
| European larch (Larix decidua) | 700 | 417 | Riffel Alp, Switz. | |
| Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) | 584 | |||
| Swiss stone pine (Pinus cembra) | 1,200 | 750 | Riffel Alp, Switz. | |
| white pine (Pinus strobus) | 400–450 | |||
| bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata) | 4,900 | Wheeler Peak, Humboldt National Forest, Nevada | ||
| Sierra redwood (Sequoiadendron giganteum) | 4,000 | 2,200–2,300 | northern California | |
| monocotyledonous flowering plants | dragon tree (Dracaena draco) | 200* | Tenerife, one of the Canary Islands | |
| Solomon's seal (Polygonatum) | 17** | |||
| dicotyledonous flowering plants | dwarf birch (Betula nana) | 80 | eastern Greenland | |
| European beech (Fagus sylvatica) | 900 | 250 | Montigny, Normandy, France | |
| English oak (Quercus robur) | 2,000 | 1,500 | Hasbruch Forest, Lower Saxony | |
| Bo tree (Ficus religiosa) | 2,000–3,000*** | Bodh Gaya, India; Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka | ||
| linden (Tilia) | 815 | Lithuania | ||
| English ivy (Hedera helix) | 440 | Ginac, near Montpellier, France | ||
Problem of defining age
An English oak that has 1,000 annual rings in the trunk is 1,000 years old. But age is less certain in the case of an arctic lupine that germinated from a seed that, containing the embryo, had been lying in a lemming’s burrow in the arctic permafrost for 10,000 years.
The mushroom caps that appear overnight last for only a few days, but the network of fungus filaments in the soil (the mycelia) may be as old as 400 years. Because of important differences in structure, the life span of higher plants cannot be compared with that of higher animals. Normally, embryonic cells (that is, cells capable of changing in form or becoming specialized) cease to exist very early in the life of an animal. In plants, however, embryonic tissue—the plant meristems—may contribute to growth and tissue formation for a much longer time, in some cases throughout the life of the plant. Thus the oldest known trees, bristlecone pines of California and Nevada, have one meristem (the cambium) that has been adding cells to the diameter of these trees for, in many cases, more than 4,000 years and another meristem (the apical) that has been adding cells to the length of these trees for the same period. These meristematic tissues are as old as the plant itself; they were formed in the embryo. The wood, bark, leaves and cones, however, live for only a few years. The wood of the trunk and roots, although dead, remains a part of the tree indefinitely, but the bark, leaves, and cones are continually in the process of dying and sloughing off.
Among the lower plants only a few mosses possess structures that enable an estimate of their age to be made. The haircap moss (Polytrichum) grows through its own stem tip each year, leaving a ring of scales that marks the annual growth. Three to five years’ growth in this moss is common, but life spans of 10 years have been recorded. The lower portions of such a moss are dead, though intact. Peat moss (Sphagnum) forms extensive growths that fill acid bogs with a peaty turf consisting of the dead lower portions of mosses whose living tops continue growing. Mosses that become encrusted with lime (calcium carbonate) and form “tufa” beds several metres thick also have living tips and dead lower portions. On the basis of their observed annual growth, some tufa mosses are estimated to have been growing for as long as 2,800 years.
No reliable method for determining the age of ferns exists, but on the basis of size attained and growth rate, some tree ferns are thought to be several decades old. Some club mosses, or lycopsids, have a “storied” growth pattern similar to that of the haircap moss. Under favourable conditions some specimens live five to seven years.
The woody seed plants, such as conifers and broadleaf trees, are the most amenable to determination of age. In temperate regions, where each year’s growth is brought to an end by cold or dryness, every growth period is limited by an annual ring—a new layer of wood added to the diameter of the tree. These rings may be counted on the cut ends of a tree that has been felled or, using a special instrument, a cylinder of wood can be cut out and the growth rings counted and studied. In the far north growth rings are so close together that they are difficult to count. In the moist tropics growth is more or less continuous, so that clearly defined rings are difficult to find.
Often the age of a tree is estimated on the basis of its diameter, especially when the average annual increase in diameter is known. The source of greatest error in this method is the not infrequent fusing of the trunks of more than one tree, as, for example, occurred in a Montezuma cypress in Santa María del Tule, a little Mexican village near Oaxaca. This tree, described by the Spanish explorer Hernan Cortés in the early 1500s, was earlier estimated on the basis of its great thickness to be 6,000 years old; later studies, however, proved it to be three trees grown together. Estimates of the age of some English yews have been as high as 3,000 years, but these figures, too, have turned out to be based on the fusion of close-growing trunks, none of which is more than 250 years old. Increment borings of bristlecone pines have shown specimens in the western United States to be 4,600 years old.
Growing season of seed plants
Annuals
Plants, usually herbaceous, that live for only one growing season and produce flowers and seeds in that time are called annuals. They may be represented by such plants as corn and marigolds, which spend a period of a few weeks to a few months rapidly accumulating food materials. As a result of hormonal changes—brought about in many plants by changes in environmental factors such as day length and temperature—leaf-producing tissues change abruptly to flower-producing ones. The formation of flowers, fruits, and seeds rapidly depletes food reserves and the vegetative portion of the plant usually dies. Although the exhaustion of food reserves often accompanies death of the plant, it is not necessarily the cause of death.
Biennials
These plants, too, are usually herbaceous. They live for two growing seasons. During the first season, food is accumulated, usually in a thickened root (beets, carrots); flowering occurs in the second season. As in annuals, flowering exhausts the food reserves, and the plants die after the seeds mature.
Perennials
These plants have a life span of several to many years. Some are herbaceous (iris, delphinium), others are shrubs or trees. The perennials differ from the above-mentioned groups in that the storage structures are either permanent or are renewed each year. Perennials require from one to many years growth before flowering. The preflowering (juvenile) period is usually shorter in trees and shrubs with shorter life spans than in those with longer life spans. The long-lived beech tree (Fagus sylvatica), for example, passes 30–40 years in the juvenile stage, during which time there is rapid growth but no flowering.
Some plants—cotton and tomatoes, for example—are perennials in their native tropical regions but are capable of blooming and producing fruits, seeds, or other useful parts in their first year. Such plants are often grown as annuals in the temperate zones.
Longevity of seeds
Although there is great variety in the longevity of seeds, the dormant embryo plant contained within the seed will lose its viability (ability to grow) if germination fails to occur within a certain time. Reports of the sprouting of wheat taken from Egyptian tombs are unfounded, but some seeds do retain their viability a long time. Indian lotus seeds (actually fruits) have the longest known retention of viability. On the other hand, seeds of some willows lose their ability to germinate within a week after they have reached maturity.
The loss of viability of seeds in storage, although hastened or retarded by environmental factors, is the result of changes that take place within the seed itself. The changes that have been investigated are: exhaustion of food supply; gradual denaturing or loss of vital structure by protoplasmic proteins; breakdown of enzymes; accumulation of toxins resulting from the metabolism of the seed. Some self-produced toxins may cause mutations that hamper seed germination. Since seeds of different species vary greatly in structure, physiology, and life history, no single set of age factors can apply to all seeds.
Lawrence Kaplan