mirror neuron

mirror neuron, type of sensory-motor cell located in the brain that is activated when an individual performs an action or observes another individual performing the same action. Thus, the neurons “mirror” others’ actions. Mirror neurons are of interest in the study of certain social behaviours, such as empathy and imitation, and may provide a mechanistic explanation for social cognition.

Brain locations of mirror neurons

Small populations of mirror neurons have been found in areas of the brains of monkeys, humans, and birds. In the macaque brain, those areas include area F5 of the inferior frontal cortex (ventral premotor cortex) and the inferior parietal lobule (IPL). Those two brain areas work in concert and receive input from areas involved in the perceptual processing of biological movement, such as the superior temporal sulcus (STS). In humans, neurons that discharge during the execution and perception of actions have been identified in various parts of the brain, including in the medial frontal cortex and in the medial temporal cortex.

Types of mirror neurons

Different types of mirror neurons can be distinguished, among them strictly congruent and broadly congruent neurons. Strictly congruent neurons (about 30 percent of the mirror neurons in area F5) discharge when a monkey performs a particular action, such as grasping an object with the thumb and index finger (precision grip), and when the monkey observes the same movement. Broadly congruent neurons (about 60 percent of mirror neurons in area F5) discharge to a wider range of movements during observation. For instance, a broadly congruent neuron may fire only during the performance of a precision grip but fire regardless of grip type during observation.

Proposed functions of mirror neurons

It has been suggested that mirror neurons provide a simple and direct form of action understanding. The mirroring mechanism they provide could allow individuals to understand the actions of others by simulating the observed actions through the use of the observers’ own action repertoire. The finding that mirror neurons do not discharge when a monkey observes hand actions that are not directed at an object (intransitive actions) illustrates that this understanding seems to be limited to object-directed actions. However, the object an action is directed at does not need to be visible in order for mirror neurons to discharge. If the monkey observes someone grasping an object that is hidden from the view of the monkey, the same mirror neurons will discharge as when the object is not hidden. Thus, knowing that an action is directed at a particular object is sufficient to trigger mirror-neuron discharge.

Although most studies of mirror neurons have focused on action perception in the visual domain, there is evidence that some mirror neurons respond to sound. The neurons discharge not only when the monkey sees an action but also when it hears a sound that normally accompanies a particular action. In humans the discharge of mirror neurons in relation to auditory stimuli has led to hypotheses about the neurons’ involvement in language evolution.

In humans the activation of mirror neurons occurs for not only object-directed actions but also intransitive actions, such as dancing. The extent to which those brain areas are activated through observation depends on the observer’s expertise in performing the observed action. For example, using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), researchers found that ballet dancers showed more activation in the premotor cortex when observing ballet dancing than when observing a martial-arts-style dance that was unfamiliar to them (capoeira). Likewise, capoeira dancers showed more activation when observing capoeira dancing than when observing ballet dancing.

Mirroring in humans has also been implicated in imitation and imitation learning. Several fMRI studies showed higher activation in the human mirror system when an observed action was to be imitated later than when it was observed without the intention to imitate. A possible role for mirror neurons in imitation has been supported by studies in sparrows, which possess mirror neurons that match perceived songs to the bird’s system for producing songs. In humans imitation learning likely requires higher-level cognitive functions in addition to the mirror system, given that other primates, namely macaques, do not imitate even though they possess mirror neurons.

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In addition to action understanding and imitation, predicting others’ actions has been proposed as a function of mirroring. The match between perceived actions and an observer’s own action repertoire may allow the observer to recruit predictive motor mechanisms in order to anticipate what the observed actor is going to do next. For instance, when observing someone throwing a dart at a target board, mirroring may allow the observer to predict where the dart will land.

The wider functional implications of mirror neurons are still under debate. Some researchers have proposed that mirror neurons play an important role in empathy, language evolution, and mental-state attribution, leading to the controversial claim that autism is a disorder of the mirror-neuron system. Other researchers hold that mirror neurons are not so special and that their functionality covers otherwise general abilities of neurons. An important contribution to this debate may come from evolutionary biologists who are investigating mirroring mechanisms in species other than humans and monkeys.