neurofeedback

neurofeedback, form of therapy in which the brain’s electrical activity is assessed and measured to help correct dysfunctional or abnormal brain-wave patterns. Techniques used to detect electrical rhythms in the brain include electroencephalography (EEG), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), and magnetoencephalography (MEG).

Neurofeedback has been used to treat a variety of conditions, including attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety, depression, epilepsy, and sleep disorders. It is also increasingly used as a means of improving creative performance and enhancing concentration. However, whether neurofeedback is actually effective, therapeutically or as a form of mental enhancement, remains uncertain.

Historical development

The first indication that individuals could learn to consciously alter their brain waves came in the 1960s, most notably with the research of American neuroscientist M. Barry Sterman and biologist Wanda Wyrwicka. Initially, Sterman and Wyrwicka monitored the EEGs of cats that had been conditioned to press a lever to receive a food reward. The cats were then conditioned to wait until a specific sound cue ended before pressing the lever. In the second experiment, Sterman noticed that cats that successfully received the food reward had entered a state of intense concentration while listening for the sound to terminate. As the cats waited, Sterman further observed a distinct brain-wave rhythm in their EEGs, a pattern that became known as the sensorimotor rhythm (SMR). The experiments showed that it was possible for animals to intentionally alter their concentration. A second series of experiments confirmed the results.

Sterman subsequently was invited by colleagues at the University of California, Los Angeles, who were working on a research project for the United States Air Force, to test the effects on cognition of exposure to the rocket fuel chemical monomethylhydrazine (MMH). He injected the chemical into cats and monitored their brain waves by EEG. He found that a small number of cats that had been involved in the earlier conditioning experiments showed resistance to the epileptogenic effects of MMH. Cats that had not undergone SMR conditioning experienced seizures that began about 40–70 minutes after they were injected with the chemical. By contrast, cats that had received SMR conditioning suffered seizures later or even avoided them altogether. In the 1970s, Sterman discovered that the risk of seizures could be diminished in human epilepsy patients who learned to increase their SMR levels.

Characteristics

A neurofeedback session generally lasts 30 to 60 minutes, with patients undergoing an average of 20 to 40 sessions with a trained professional. In a typical session, clinicians attach sensors to a patient’s scalp to record brain waves in a cortical region responsible for mental functions that require treatment or improvement. The brain activity is translated into video or audio cues that are displayed in real time on a computer screen, which then provides feedback to indicate whether the brain-wave patterns are desirable or undesirable. For example, patients with ADHD might be asked to make flowers bloom and birds sing on a computer monitor, using only their thoughts. When the brain is in a focused state, the computer screen will show a field filled with colourful flowers and singing birds. When the patient becomes distracted or loses focus, however, the flowers wilt and the picture turns gray. The participants then perform mental exercises to help them concentrate and restore colour to the picture. Over time, the brain learns to associate optimal brain-wave patterns with pleasant images or sounds.

Neurofeedback focuses on alpha, beta, delta, gamma, or theta brain waves or on combinations thereof. The most common procedures focus on alpha, beta, theta, or alpha/theta waves (increasing theta amplitude over alpha activity through audio feedback to produce a deeply relaxed state). With EEG, the brain waves are recognized by their frequencies, which are measured in cycles per second (Hertz, or Hz), and by their amplitudes (or power), which are measured in microvolts and indicate the level of mental arousal. Alpha waves are observed when a person is awake and relaxed and are associated with alertness, readiness, recall, and cognitive performance. Beta waves show that a person is awake and are linked to thinking, focus, concentration, and excitement. Delta waves, which have the lowest frequency range, signify that a person is asleep and are associated with complex problem solving. Gamma waves, which have the highest frequencies, are seen when a person is attempting to solve a problem and are associated with mental acuity, cognitive processing, and learning. Theta waves indicate that a person is sleepy and are linked to creativity and meditation. Subsets of the primary frequency ranges also exist, notably SMR at 12–15 Hz, which is considered low beta.

Applications

Neurofeedback initially was used as a treatment for stress, epilepsy, and hyperkinesia (abnormally increased muscle activity). Proponents later came to believe that it was an effective therapy for a wide range of disorders, including ADHD, anxiety, depression, traumatic brain injury, stroke, chronic pain, insomnia, and migraines. The U.S. military offered neurofeedback sessions to veterans suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

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The brain-training technique also was used for nonmedical purposes. The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), for example, used neurofeedback in astronaut training as a way to improve astronauts’ focus and mental acuity. Professional athletes, including Olympians and football (soccer) players, incorporated it into their training in the hopes of gaining a competitive edge by increasing their mental agility. Musicians, dancers, and actors have used neurofeedback to enhance creativity.

Controversy

Despite numerous accounts promoting the effectiveness of neurofeedback, some scientists remain skeptical. Questions have been raised about the validity of neurofeedback research, particularly regarding a lack of rigorous scientific evaluation in published studies. In addition, some researchers attributed positive treatment outcomes to the placebo effect, with the psychological benefit being the result of simply undergoing the treatment rather than a result of the therapy itself. Nonetheless, in the early 21st century, there was a surge in demand for neurofeedback, and the number of individuals using the technology increased substantially. At least one company had developed a version of a neurofeedback product that could be used for at-home treatment sessions.