By contrast, Euclid presented number theory without the flourishes. He began Book VII of his Elements by defining a number as “a multitude composed of units.” The plural here excluded 1; for Euclid, 2 was the smallest “number.” He later defined a prime as a number “measured by a unit alone” (i.e., whose only proper divisor is 1), a composite as a number that is not prime, and a perfect number as one that equals the sum of its “parts” (i.e., its proper divisors).
From there, Euclid proved a sequence of theorems that marks the beginning of number theory as a mathematical (as opposed to a numerological) enterprise. Four Euclidean propositions deserve special mention.
The first, Proposition 2 of Book VII, is a procedure for finding the greatest common divisor of two whole numbers. This fundamental result is now called the Euclidean algorithm in his honour.
Second, Euclid gave a version of what is known as the unique factorization theorem or the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. This says that any whole number can be factored into the product of primes in one and only one way. For example, 1,960 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 7 × 7 is a decomposition into prime factors, and no other such decomposition exists. Euclid’s discussion of unique factorization is not satisfactory by modern standards, but its essence can be found in Proposition 32 of Book VII and Proposition 14 of Book IX.
Third, Euclid showed that no finite collection of primes contains them all. His argument, Proposition 20 of Book IX, remains one of the most elegant proofs in all of mathematics. Beginning with any finite collection of primes—say, a, b, c, …, n—Euclid considered the number formed by adding one to their product: N = (abc⋯n) + 1. He then examined the two alternatives:
(1) If N is prime, then it is a new prime not among a, b, c, …, n because it is larger than all of these. For example, if the original primes were 2, 3, and 7, then N = (2 × 3 × 7) + 1 = 43 is a larger prime. (2) Alternately, if N is composite, it must have a prime factor which, as Euclid demonstrated, cannot be one of the originals. To illustrate, begin with primes 2, 7, and 11, so that N = (2 × 7 × 11) + 1 = 155. This is composite, but its prime factors 5 and 31 do not appear among the originals. Either way, a finite set of primes can always be augmented. It follows, by this beautiful piece of logic, that the collection of primes is infinite.
Fourth, Euclid ended Book IX with a blockbuster: if the series 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + … + 2k sums to a prime, then the number N = 2k(1 + 2 + 4 + … + 2k) must be perfect. For example, 1 + 2 + 4 = 7, a prime, so 4(1 + 2 + 4) = 28 is perfect. Euclid’s “recipe” for perfect numbers was a most impressive achievement for its day.
Diophantus
Of later Greek mathematicians, especially noteworthy is Diophantus of Alexandria (flourished c. 250), author of Arithmetica. This book features a host of problems, the most significant of which have come to be called Diophantine equations. These are equations whose solutions must be whole numbers. For example, Diophantus asked for two numbers, one a square and the other a cube, such that the sum of their squares is itself a square. In modern symbols, he sought integers x, y, and z such that (x2)2 + (y3)2 = z2. It is easy to find real numbers satisfying this relationship (e.g., x = Square root of√2, y = 1, and z = Square root of√5), but the requirement that solutions be integers makes the problem more difficult. (One answer is x = 6, y = 3, and z = 45.) Diophantus’s work strongly influenced later mathematics.
Number theory in the East
The millennium following the decline of Rome saw no significant European advances, but Chinese and Indian scholars were making their own contributions to the theory of numbers. Motivated by questions of astronomy and the calendar, the Chinese mathematician Sun Zi (Sun Tzu; flourished c. 250 ce) tackled multiple Diophantine equations. As one example, he asked for a whole number that when divided by 3 leaves a remainder of 2, when divided by 5 leaves a remainder of 3, and when divided by 7 leaves a remainder of 2 (his answer: 23). Almost a thousand years later, Qin Jiushao (1202–61) gave a general procedure, now known as the Chinese remainder theorem, for solving problems of this sort.
Meanwhile, Indian mathematicians were hard at work. In the 7th century Brahmagupta took up what is now (erroneously) called the Pell equation. He posed the challenge to find a perfect square that, when multiplied by 92 and increased by 1, yields another perfect square. That is, he sought whole numbers x and y such that 92x2 + 1 = y2—a Diophantine equation with quadratic terms. Brahmagupta suggested that anyone who could solve this problem within a year earned the right to be called a mathematician. His solution was x = 120 and y = 1,151.
In addition, Indian scholars developed the so-called Hindu-Arabic numerals—the base-10 notation subsequently adopted by the world’s mathematical and civil communities (see numerals and numeral systems). Although more number representation than number theory, these numerals have prevailed due to their simplicity and ease of use. The Indians employed this system—including the zero—as early as 800 ce.
At about this time, the Islamic world became a mathematical powerhouse. Situated on trade routes between East and West, Islamic scholars absorbed the works of other civilizations and augmented these with homegrown achievements. For example, Thabit ibn Qurrah (active in Baghdad in the 9th century) returned to the Greek problem of amicable numbers and discovered a second pair: 17,296 and 18,416.
Modern number theory
As mathematics filtered from the Islamic world to Renaissance Europe, number theory received little serious attention. The period from 1400 to 1650 saw important advances in geometry, algebra, and probability, not to mention the discovery of both logarithms and analytic geometry. But number theory was regarded as a minor subject, largely of recreational interest.