Regulation of ovarian function

The ovaries secrete both estrogen and progesterone into the bloodstream, and thus they are important endocrine glands. Before the onset of puberty the ovaries are quiescent, and the cortex of each ovary contains only immature follicles. Puberty begins with pulsatile nocturnal secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. Nocturnal pulses are initiated at least in part by increasing body size, which may cause an increase in the secretion of leptin (from the Greek leptos, meaning “thin”; a protein hormone important for regulation of reproduction, metabolism, and body weight), which in turn stimulates the secretion of GnRH. Pulsatile secretion of GnRH activates the gonadotroph cells of the anterior pituitary, resulting in pulses of secretion of moderate quantities of FSH and of significant quantities of LH. In time, pulsatile secretion of GnRH and pulsatile secretion of the gonadotropins occur continuously. Increasing secretion of gonadotropins leads to increasing production of estrogens by the ovaries. Estrogens stimulate the development of secondary sex characteristics and the maturation of ovarian follicles. Increased secretion of estrogens normally occurs between ages 8 and 14 in girls.

With continued maturation of the hypothalamus, pituitary, and ovaries, the cyclic hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian activity characteristic of adult women begins. During the first days of the menstrual cycle, secretion of FSH increases, causing the maturation of follicles as described above. As follicles mature, they secrete more estradiol (the most potent of the estrogens), which is paralleled by an increase in the secretion of LH. Increased secretion of LH stimulates the secretion of more estradiol and a small amount of progesterone that then trigger a transient surge in LH secretion and to a lesser extent FSH secretion, causing rupture of the mature Graafian follicle. The surge in LH secretion can be readily detected in the urine, providing a means whereby women can determine if they have ovulated and therefore are potentially fertile.

The follicular phase of the cycle ends at the time of ovulation. Serum LH, FSH, and estradiol concentrations then decrease considerably, and the corpus luteum begins to produce some estrogen and large quantities of progesterone. This is known as the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, which lasts until the corpus luteum degenerates (luteolysis) and estradiol and progesterone production decreases. The decreasing serum estrogen and progesterone concentrations result in constriction of uterine arteries, thus interrupting the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the endometrium. The endometrium is then sloughed off, causing the vaginal bleeding characteristic of menstruation. A new menstrual cycle then begins.

The normal menstrual cycle is typically divided into a follicular phase of about 14 days, during which the endometrium proliferates, and a luteal phase of about 14 days, which culminates with the endometrial lining being sloughed off. Thus, the two phases are separated by ovulation on the one hand and by menstruation on the other hand. The phases vary in length by several days in different women and sometimes in the same woman. Variations in cycle length are most common in the first years after menarche (the first menstrual cycle) and just before menopause (when menstruation ceases).

The changing serum estrogen and progesterone concentrations during the menstrual cycle have several other effects. Basal body temperature fluctuates little during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle but increases abruptly after ovulation. This increase parallels the postovulatory increase in serum progesterone concentrations and is caused by an effect of progesterone on the temperature-regulating centres in the brain. The decrease in serum estradiol and progesterone concentrations near the end of the cycle may be accompanied by changes in mood and activity and by an increase in fluid retention. The changes initiated by the decrease in secretion of estradiol and progesterone comprise the symptoms of premenstrual syndrome, although the relationship between hormonal changes and these symptoms is unclear.

After menopause, the ovaries shrink in size and usually consist of old fibrous tissue. The production of estrogen drops considerably but does not totally cease.