prenatal testing

prenatal testing, any of several screening and diagnostic procedures that provide information on the health of a developing human fetus. Prenatal screening tests generally are used to assess the likelihood that a baby will be affected by certain conditions. When screening tests indicate that a fetus is at increased risk, prenatal diagnostic tests, which often are invasive, may be performed to confirm the presence of a disorder.

Prenatal screening tests

Screening tests are performed in the first and second trimesters of pregnancy. Screening typically involves maternal blood tests, ultrasounds, and the collection of information about maternal age, maternal and paternal family history, and maternal and paternal medical history. Blood tests performed in first-trimester screening specifically measure levels of pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A (PAPP-A) and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), both of which are produced by the placenta in early pregnancy. Second-trimester blood tests measure the levels of multiple substances, including alpha-fetoprotein (AFP; a fetal liver protein) and the placenta-produced hormones estriol, hCG, and inhibin. Abnormal levels of any of those substances may be associated with a chromosomal abnormality or other disorder (e.g., abnormal AFP levels may be indicative of a neural tube defect). First-trimester ultrasound screening is used to assess nuchal translucency, or the thickness of the clear space at the back of the fetal neck. In the second trimester, ultrasound is used primarily to confirm the due date and to examine the fetal spine, palate, and vital organs for defects.

Prenatal diagnostic tests

Abnormalities detected by screening tests often warrant further investigation with diagnostic tests. Diagnostic tests generally require the collection of fetal cells or fetal DNA. Although blood tests have become increasingly sensitive to the detection of fetal cells in maternal blood, enabling their collection through noninvasive means, most tests require more fetal cells and DNA than can be isolated from maternal blood, necessitating the use of invasive procedures. The most commonly used prenatal diagnostic tests are amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling (CVS). In amniocentesis, a thin needle is inserted through the abdomen and uterus and into the amniotic sac. A small sample of amniotic fluid, which is rich in fetal cells, is then collected. The procedure typically is performed between 15 and 17 weeks of pregnancy. In CVS, either a needle is inserted through the abdomen or a thin tube is inserted into the vagina and cervix to collect a small sample of fetal tissue from the chorion (outer embryonic membrane). CVS is performed between 8 and 12 weeks of pregnancy. Other diagnostic tests that may be used include cordocentesis (fetal blood sampling, or percutaneous umbilical cord sampling), in which fetal blood is collected from the umbilical cord or the fetus; fetoscopy, in which an instrument called a fetoscope is inserted through an incision in the abdomen in order to directly access the umbilical cord, amniotic cavity, and fetus; and fetal doppler ultrasound, which is used to examine blood flow in the umbilical cord, placenta, and fetal organs (certain conditions, such as sickle-cell anemia, can restrict fetal blood flow, leading to fetal abnormalities). Invasive prenatal diagnostic tests are associated with an increased risk of miscarriage.

Interpreting test results

Prenatal testing can either ease anxiety for expecting parents or lead to difficult decisions. For example, the risk of miscarriage from invasive diagnostic procedures or a lack of insurance coverage for certain tests may dissuade some parents from further testing to confirm or rule out the presence of a disorder. Knowledge of a suspected but unconfirmed disorder, however, may increase parents’ anxiety about the health of their future child. For parents who choose to undergo diagnostic testing, deciding what to do with information from test results may be complicated by the possibility of false-negative or false-positive outcomes. To better understand test results, parents may choose to meet with a genetic counselor. In some instances, such as when parents decide that a birth defect would have severe negative impacts on their baby’s physical and mental development and quality of life, they may choose to terminate the pregnancy. In other cases, expecting parents may use information from prenatal screening and diagnosis to plan for their baby’s care.