Development of rockets

The technology of rocket propulsion appears to have its origins in the period 1200–1300 in Asia, where the first “propellant” (a mixture of saltpetre, sulfur, and charcoal called black powder) had been in use for about 1,000 years for other purposes. As is so often the case with the development of technology, the early uses were primarily military. Powered by black powder charges, rockets served as bombardment weapons, culminating in effectiveness with the Congreve rockets (named for William Congreve, a British officer who was instrumental in their development) of the early 1800s. Performance of these early rockets was poor by modern standards because the only available propellant was black powder, which is not ideal for propulsion. Military use of rockets declined from 1815 to 1936 because of the superior performance of guns.

During the period 1880–1930 the idea of using rockets for space travel grew in public interest. Stimulated by the conceptions of such fiction writers as Jules Verne, the Russian scientist Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky worked on theoretical problems of propulsion-system design and rocket motion and on the concept of multistage rockets. Perhaps more widely recognized are the contributions of Robert H. Goddard, an American scientist and inventor who from 1908 to 1945 conducted a wide array of rocket experiments. He independently developed ideas similar to those of Tsiolkovsky about spaceflight and propulsion and implemented them, building liquid- and solid-propellant rockets. His developmental work included tests of the world’s first liquid-propellant rocket in 1926. Goddard’s many contributions to the theory and design of rockets earned him the title of father of modern rocketry. A third pioneer, Hermann Oberth of Germany, developed much of the modern theory for rocket and spaceflight independent of Tsiolkovsky and Goddard. He not only provided inspiration for visionaries of spaceflight but played a pivotal role in advancing the practical application of rocket propulsion that led to the development of rockets in Germany during the 1930s.

Due to the work of these early pioneers and a host of rocket experimenters, the potential of rocket propulsion was at least vaguely perceived prior to World War II, but there were many technical barriers to overcome. Development was accelerated during the late 1930s and particularly during the war years. The most notable achievements in rocket propulsion of this era were the German liquid-propellant V-2 rocket and the Me-163 rocket-powered airplane. (Similar developments were under way in other countries but did not see service during the war.) A myriad of solid-propellant rocket weapons also were produced, and tens of millions were fired during combat operations by German, British, and U.S. forces. The main advances in propulsion that were involved in the wartime technology were the development of pumps, injectors, and cooling systems for liquid-propellant engines and high-energy solid propellants that could be formed into large pieces with reliable burning characteristics.

From 1945 to 1955 propulsion development was still largely determined by military applications. Liquid-propellant engines were refined for use in supersonic research aircraft, intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and high-altitude research rockets. Similarly, developments in solid-propellant motors were in the areas of military tactical rocket applications and high-altitude research. Bombardment rockets, aircraft interceptors, antitank weapons, and air-launched rockets for air and surface targets were among the primary tactical applications. Technological advances in propulsion included the perfection of methods for casting solid-propellant charges, development of more energetic solid propellants, introduction of new structural and insulation materials in both liquid and solid systems, manufacturing methods for larger motors and engines, and improvements in peripheral hardware (e.g., pumps, valves, engine-cooling systems, and direction controls). By 1955 most missions called for some form of guidance, and larger rockets generally employed two stages. While the potential for spaceflight was present and contemplated at the time, financial resources were directed primarily toward military applications.

The next decade witnessed the development of large solid-propellant rocket motors for use in ICBMs, a choice motivated by the perceived need to have such systems in ready-to-launch condition for long periods of time. This resulted in a major effort to improve manufacturing capabilities for large motors, lightweight cases, energetic propellants, insulation materials that could survive long operational times, and thrust-direction control. Enhancement of these capabilities led to a growing role for solid-rocket motors in spaceflight. Between 1955 and 1965 the vision of the early pioneers began to be realized with the achievement of Earth-orbiting satellites and manned spaceflight. The early missions were accomplished with liquid-propulsion systems adapted from military rockets. The first successful “all-civilian” system was the Saturn launch vehicle for the Apollo Moon-landing program, which used five 7,740-kilonewton- (1.7-million-pound-) thrust liquid-propellant engines in the first stage. Since then, liquid systems have been employed by most countries for spaceflight applications, though solid boosters have been combined with liquid engines in various first stages of U.S. launch vehicles (those of the Titan 34D, Delta, and space shuttle) and solid-rocket motors have been used for several systems for transfer from low Earth orbit to geosynchronous orbit. In such systems, the lower performance of solid-propellant motors is accepted in exchange for the operational simplicity that it provides.

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telescope: Rockets and spacecraft

Since 1965, missions have drawn on an ever-expanding technology base, using improved propellants, structural materials, and designs. Present-day missions may involve a combination of several kinds of engines and motors, each chosen according to its function. Because of the performance advantages of energetic propellants and low structural mass, propulsion systems are operated near their safe limits, and one major challenge is to achieve reliability commensurate with the value of the (sometimes human) payload. Environmental compatibility has become a significant concern.