Networking

Time-sharing allowed for the creation of local area networks, but serious technical limitations soon became apparent. Beyond a certain point, adding more users slowed the system so much that it became unresponsive, or seemingly “asleep.” The solution was to find a way to network various local time-sharing networks together so that computational resources could be shared. In 1966 IPTO funded the creation of a high-speed network among the universities and corporations it had contracted. This was the beginning of the ARPANET.

ARPANET was more than a predecessor to the Internet. It was the common technological context in which an entire generation of computer scientists came of age. It differed from existing computer networks in two distinct ways. First, rather than sharing a single computer among a host of terminals (as in time-sharing), ARPANET connected a network of time-sharing computers. Second, this network used the new and unproven technology of packet switching. Before this, networks were hardwired together, much like the telephone system in which individuals are connected by specific dedicated circuits. Packet switching worked more like a postal system; that is, messages had a designated destination and return address but no mandatory delivery route. Another way to think of packet switching is that in such a network the intelligence necessary to move a message is decentralized and spread throughout the system. Such a system was of great interest to the military, since it could operate and route messages even if part of the network was destroyed.

By the time Robert Kahn became IPTO director in 1979, the Department of Defense had multiple incompatible packet-switching networks. Kahn forged the Internet from these disparate systems through the creation of the famous Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), a process involving industry, academia, and the armed services. Once again DARPA hired individuals well versed in specific fields and gave them the ability to let contracts to institutions capable of doing the research and creating the final product. Of course, not even DARPA could have foreseen what the Internet would become.