Hegelian school

Hegelian school, group of European philosophers who critically developed the philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, the last of the great system builders of modern Western philosophy, in the decades following his death in 1831. The Hegelian school addressed Hegel’s project of asking how free and rational action is possible within the framework of contemporary social institutions. In the disunited German territories of the 1830s and ’40s, questions of religious, political, and social freedom were sharply posed. The thinkers who constituted the Hegelian school sought to find, by adapting and criticizing Hegel, resources for grasping central philosophical and political issues of the modern world. Their writings identify questions about freedom and citizenship that still retain their urgency today.

The Hegelian school was always a very loose association, comprising shifting political and geographic alliances. Intense controversy often raged among its members, much of it over the proper interpretation of Hegel’s work, which was still being digested, collected, and edited in the 1830s. These disagreements were first given a systematic expression in 1837 by the German philosopher David Friedrich Strauss. Strauss distinguished between right, centre, and left Hegelianism, each adopting a different view of the relation between reason and religious faith. According to Strauss, right Hegelians saw Hegel’s philosophy as an affirmation of Christianity, left Hegelians challenged or reformulated Christian doctrines, and centre Hegelians indecisively straddled both camps. Although the labels, which quickly took on wider political meanings, are serviceable as rough guidelines, the individual positions represented in the school were far more complex and variable than Strauss’s sketch might indicate.

The evolution of the Hegelian school was conditioned by ambiguities in Hegel’s philosophy and by political conditions in the Vormärz, the prelude to the German revolutions of 1848–49 (see Revolutions of 1848). The Hegelian idea of the unity of thought and being, the core of his idealism, implies the historical realization of reason in the world. In his Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts (1821; Philosophy of Right), Hegel asserted that the real is rational and the rational is real. This infamous copula is, however, ambiguous: Does it refer to an accomplished fact or rather identify a tendency, still incomplete? To what extent, that is, do the prevailing forms of religion, politics, and society correspond to the standards of reason and freedom? Depending on how one answers this question, Hegel’s philosophy can be seen as basically legitimating the status quo or as criticizing institutions and social relations that were still inadequately rational. The Hegelian left took up the latter option.

It did so in response to specific historical factors. Under Napoleonic pressure, the Prussian state had achieved significant agrarian reforms (including abolition of serfdom) in the early years of the 19th century, as well as military and educational modernization. Hegel had obtained his professorship at the recently founded University of Berlin through the efforts of the reformers. Resistance to further reforms grew after Napoleon’s defeat in 1815. The king of Prussia, Friedrich Wilhelm III, reneged on his promise of a constitution. In the 1830s the crown prince (who succeeded to the throne as Friedrich Wilhelm IV in 1840) led efforts to eradicate Hegelian influence from the state and universities, viewing Hegelianism as incompatible with political order and religious observance. Conservatives accused Hegel of pantheism, the heretical doctrine that God and the natural cosmos are one and the same entity. They stressed instead the separateness of God and the world, with Christ as the unique mediator between the human and the divine. This in turn implied a political theology of personal monarchical rule and the assertion of a mystical bond between king and people, one that cannot be captured in any written constitution or body of explicit rules. In response, whereas the right Hegelians simply denied that unorthodox conclusions could be drawn from Hegel’s system, the Hegelian left initiated its religious criticism by rethinking the relation between the divine and the human. Religious and political motifs were closely connected on both sides of the ideological divide.

Hegelian left and right

Leading the charge on the Hegelian left was Strauss. His Das Leben Jesu kritisch bearbeitet, 2 vol. (1835–36; The Life of Jesus Critically Examined) contended that the essential Christian message is the unity of the human and the divine but that the Gospels had presented philosophical truth in the form of a myth about the birth of Christ, a figure who symbolically represents that unity. The myth was not a deception but was the product of the early Christian community’s reflection on its own origins and historical significance. For Strauss, the genuine truth of this doctrine could be retrieved philosophically if the unity of the human and divine were understood—in Hegelian terms—to mean the realization of reason in the world, through the collective work of the human species in time. In its context, this theological argument was politically charged, despite Strauss’s caution in the political arena. It offered an analogy to the decisive political question of the day, the contested locus of sovereignty in the state: does it reside exclusively in the person of a monarch, or is it diffused throughout the democratic community? This analogy was clearly grasped at the time, and conservative authors like Heinrich Leo loudly proclaimed the dangers posed by Hegelianism to the existing state and religion. In 1841 Bruno Bauer, by then one of the recognized leaders of the Hegelian left, savagely parodied these criticisms in his anonymous and quickly banned work, Posaune des jüngsten Gerichts über Hegel, den Atheisten und Antichristen (1841; The Trumpet of the Last Judgement Against Hegel, the Atheist and Antichrist). Yet Bauer’s position remains distinct from, and critical of, Strauss’s.

After being associated with the Hegelian right in the mid-1830s, Bauer was radicalized by the tightening conservative grip on the Prussian state. However, he rejected Strauss’s conception of a collective mythic consciousness. For Bauer, the question was how individuals, not anonymous collectivities, responded to the problems and possibilities of their time. For Bauer, this meant that the origins of Christianity were literary or fictional rather than mythical. Bauer rejected Strauss’s idea that the Christian unity of God and humankind symbolizes the generic perfection of the human race. He contended instead that it expresses the idea that individuals are each capable of rational freedom, transforming themselves and irrational objective conditions to promote progress and the general good. As Bauer’s critique of Christianity intensified, he described religion as passivity and self-loss, impeding freedom in personal, social, and political life. Writing on Jewish emancipation, he contended that the real solution was to renounce religion in general and to repudiate the so-called Christian state of Restoration Prussia in particular. In the 1850s Bauer became vocally anti-Semitic, describing an immutable racial divide between Jews and Christians. In the 1840s, however, he had advocated a comprehensive republicanism. In this theory, freedom and rationality are not simply natural properties distributed or shared among their bearers (as Bauer thought Strauss’s position implied) but must be consciously and actively affirmed by individuals if they are to be realized. Mobilizing Hegelian terminology, Bauer described this act of self-definition as infinite or universal self-consciousness. Bauer criticized the idea of God as a transcendent absolute being and retained a notion of universal interests that could direct republican citizens in the construction of a new political and social order, suffused with justice and reason. Particular interests had to be subjected to criticism to test their compatibility with universal emancipation. Failure to self-criticize would lead to stagnation and the conformism of mass society. Bauer’s defense of a critical individualism anticipates the English philosopher John Stuart Mill, though, unlike Mill, Bauer located the agency of historical progress not in competition among particular interests but in the ability to transform those interests consciously.

Others on the Hegelian left, like Max Stirner and Edgar Bauer, came to reject republicanism and political democracy as insufficiently radical. In Stirner’s concept of “own-ness,” or uniqueness, individuals are self-made shapers of their own personalities, unconstrained by the opinions of others or by conventional morality. Whereas Hegel viewed the state as an ethical community and an essential forum of freedom, Stirner’s anarchism viewed it as a dispensable impediment to self-affirmation and to the free play of interests among liberated egoists. This anarchism does not require active resistance to the state but permits evasion of any political impositions. Edgar Bauer, Bruno’s younger brother, advocated even more active opposition to political and ecclesiastical authority. He has been described as an originator of the modern theory of individual or group terrorism. Inspired by radical-populist movements in the French Revolution, he rejected the Hegelian idea that opposites can be reconciled, and he stressed uncompromising struggle against the existing order, including political violence. And, unlike his brother, Edgar was a socialist, advocating freedom from private property.

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