Hezbollah

Hezbollah, Shiʿi Lebanese political party and militant group that first emerged during Lebanon’s civil war as a militia after the Israeli invasion of that country in 1982. Since the 2000s it has been one of the foremost political forces in Lebanon, a multiconfessional country whose political system is largely divided along sectarian lines. Its close ties with Iran has made it one of the most important components of the Iran-led Axis of Resistance, a group of allied organizations in the Middle East that oppose the influence of Israel, the United States, and Saudi Arabia in the region. Considered to be the world’s most heavily armed nonstate militia in the 2020s, Hezbollah suffered a considerable blow in September 2024 with targeted attacks by Israel on its infrastructure, fighters, and leaders, including Hassan Nasrallah who built the organization into what it is today.

Formation, political orientation, and conflict with Israel

Shiʿi Muslims, traditionally the weakest religious group in Lebanon, first found their voice in the moderate and largely secular Amal movement. Following the Islamic Revolution in Shiʿi-majority Iran in 1979 and the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982, a group of Lebanese Shiʿi clerics formed Hezbollah with the goal of driving Israel from Lebanon and establishing an Islamic republic there. Hezbollah was based in the predominately Shiʿi areas of the Bekaa valley, southern Lebanon, and southern Beirut. It coordinated its efforts closely with Iran, from which it acquired substantial logistical support, and drew its manpower largely from disaffected younger, more radical members of Amal. Throughout the 1980s Hezbollah engaged in increasingly sophisticated attacks against Israel and fought in Lebanon’s civil war (1975–90), repeatedly coming to blows with Amal. During that time, Hezbollah allegedly engaged in terrorist attacks including kidnappings and car bombings, directed predominantly against Westerners, but also established a comprehensive social services network for its supporters.

The civil war ended in 1990 after the imposition of a consociational arrangement in which the country’s several religious sects shared power. The agreement was to be enforced by Syrian forces, which had been drawn into the country’s civil war in 1976. As the political environment changed, so did Hezbollah’s ideology and rhetoric. In 2009, while continuing to call for resistance to Israel as well as support for Iran, its updated manifesto dropped calls for the establishment of an Islamic republic in Lebanon and affirmed as its ideal government a democracy that represents national unity rather than sectarian interests.

Meanwhile, Hezbollah was one of the few militia groups not disarmed by the Syrians at the end of the civil war, and, as Lebanon divided into factions that either supported or opposed Syrian involvement in the country, Hezbollah firmly favored Syria. In the fallout of the 2005 assassination of Rafic al-Hariri, a former prime minister who opposed Syrian involvement, a popular backlash against Syria led to its decision to withdraw its forces from Lebanon. On March 8, 2005, days after Syria announced its withdrawal, Hezbollah organized a massive rally in support of Syria; the date of this rally later served as the moniker for the pro-Syria bloc in Lebanese politics.

Hezbollah also continued to fight a sustained guerrilla campaign against Israel in southern Lebanon until Israel’s withdrawal in 2000. Years later, on July 12, 2006, Hezbollah, in an attempt to pressure Israel into releasing three Lebanese jailed in Israeli prisons, launched a military operation against Israel, killing a number of Israeli soldiers and abducting two as prisoners of war. This action led Israel to launch a major military offensive against Hezbollah. The 34-day war between Hezbollah and Israel resulted in the deaths of more than 1,000 Lebanese and the displacement of some 1,000,000 (see 2006 Lebanon War). Fighting the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) to a standstill—a feat no other Arab militia had accomplished—Hezbollah and its leader, Hassan Nasrallah, emerged as heroes throughout much of the Arab world. Two years later, in July 2008, the bodies of the abducted soldiers were returned to Israel in exchange for five Lebanese prisoners and the bodies of about 200 others.

Becoming a mainstay in the Lebanese polity

In the months following the 2006 war, Hezbollah used its prestige to attempt to topple Lebanon’s government after its demands for more cabinet seats were not met: its members, along with those of the Amal militia, resigned from the cabinet. The opposition then declared that the remaining cabinet had lost its legitimacy and demanded the formation of a new government in which Hezbollah and its opposition allies would possess the power of veto.

Late the following year, efforts by the National Assembly to select a successor at the end of Lebanese Pres. Émile Lahoud’s nine-year term were stalemated by the continued power struggle between the Hezbollah-led opposition, the March 8 bloc, and the Western-backed March 14 bloc. A boycott by the opposition—which continued to seek the veto power it had been denied—prevented the assembly from reaching a two-thirds quorum. Lahoud’s term expired in November 2007, and the presidency remained unoccupied as the factions struggled to reach a consensus on a candidate and the makeup of the new government.

In May 2008, clashes between Hezbollah forces and government supporters in Beirut were sparked by government decisions that included plans to dismantle Hezbollah’s private telecommunications network. Nasrallah equated the government decisions with a declaration of war and mobilized Hezbollah forces, which quickly took control of parts of Beirut. In the following days the government reversed the decisions that had sparked the outbreak of violence, and a summit attended by both factions in Qatar led to an agreement granting the Hezbollah-led opposition the veto power it had long sought.

In November 2009, after months of negotiations following National Assembly elections, the March 8 bloc agreed to form a unity government with Prime Minister Saad al-Hariri’s March 14 bloc. Tension arose in 2010, following reports that the UN Special Tribunal for Lebanon, investigating the assassination of former prime minister Rafic al-Hariri, had focused its investigation on senior Hezbollah officials and that it would soon issue indictments. Nasrallah condemned the tribunal as politically biased and compromised by forged evidence, and he called for the Lebanese government to stop cooperating with the investigation. The March 14 bloc continued to support the tribunal, resulting in a tense standoff. After attempts by Syria and Saudi Arabia to mediate between the two sides failed, Hezbollah forced the collapse of the unity government by withdrawing its two ministers and nine allied ministers from the cabinet. In January 2011 Najib Mikati, a Sunni billionaire, was nominated to be prime minister after receiving the backing of Hezbollah and its allies in parliament. Mikati’s appointment, a sign of Hezbollah’s increasing political strength, triggered protests by supporters of the March 14 bloc, who charged that the new government would be too closely aligned with Iran and Syria, Hezbollah’s principal supporters. In June 2011, after five months of deliberations, Mikati announced the formation of a new 30-member cabinet, with 18 of the posts filled by Hezbollah allies. No posts were assigned to members of the March 14 bloc.

In late June 2011 the UN Special Tribunal for Lebanon issued arrest warrants for four suspects in the killing of Rafic al-Hariri, who were identified by Lebanese officials as affiliates of Hezbollah. In response, Nasrallah denounced the tribunal as politicized and vowed never to turn over the suspects. A fifth suspect, also a member of Hezbollah, was identified in 2013. In January 2014 the trial of the suspects in absentia began. The verdict, delivered in August 2020, convicted only one of the suspects and found no evidence of involvement from Hezbollah’s leadership.

A wave of popular uprisings in early 2011, known as the Arab Spring, left Hezbollah in a difficult position. After applauding revolutionary movements in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Bahrain, the group found its interests threatened by a similar movement against a key ally, Syrian Pres. Bashar al-Assad. As protests spread throughout Syria and the civilian death toll mounted, Nasrallah spoke out in support of Assad, echoing Assad’s denunciations of the Syrian opposition as being agents of a foreign conspiracy. The conflict soon escalated into a full-blown civil war, and by late 2012 it was widely reported that Hezbollah fighters had been covertly sent to Syria to fight alongside the Syrian army. In May 2013 Nasrallah publicly confirmed Hezbollah’s involvement and vowed to fight until the rebels had been defeated. In 2016 one of Hezbollah’s most senior military commanders, Mustafa Badreddine, who was also one of the five suspects accused of planning the assassination of Rafic al-Hariri, was killed in combat in Syria.

Rise to preeminence

In late 2016 a 29-month political stalemate was ended when Hezbollah ally Michel Aoun was elected president. As part of the deal bringing about his election, Saad al-Hariri was appointed prime minister. A year later Hariri unexpectedly resigned while on a visit to Saudi Arabia, citing foreign involvement in Lebanon’s affairs and insinuating that there was a plot against his life. Lebanon’s army and intelligence agency both denied that any such plots had been uncovered, however, and it was believed that Hariri had resigned under pressure from the Saudi government; many analysts believed Saudi Arabia was aiming to undermine Hezbollah’s power. After weeks of international pressure on the Saudi government, Hariri was allowed to return to Lebanon, where he rescinded his resignation and continued on as prime minister.

On May 6, 2018, Lebanon held its first legislative election since 2009. The March 8 bloc received a majority of seats, making Hezbollah politically dominant for the first time. After nine months of discussion, a unity government was announced that included most parties. Hezbollah did not receive direct control over any major cabinet posts, since its designation as a terrorist organization by some foreign governments would threaten international funding to Lebanon. But it did gain significant influence in the cabinet: the majority of the posts were filled by its March 8 allies, Hezbollah itself received two minor posts, and, perhaps most importantly, it was allowed to place a nonaffiliated ally to head one of the largest ministries in the country, the Ministry of Health.

The new cabinet struggled to address the crises facing Lebanon, however. Frustration brewed over corruption in the government and over the government’s inability to act effectively. In late 2019 massive demonstrations took place across the country, calling broadly for the country’s top officials to resign. Although Hezbollah attempted to discourage protests and opposed any resignation of the government, many of its own supporters participated in the protests, and Nasrallah said the government must work to regain the protesters’ confidence.

Hariri resigned at the end of October, and the unity government was replaced in January 2020 by a technocratic cabinet appointed with the sole support of the March 8 bloc. Though the new government attempted to tackle the dire financial situation, it faced new challenges in early 2020 with the outbreak of the global COVID-19 pandemic. The economic fallout exacerbated the situation while talks for aid with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) broke down in July. That same month Lebanon entered a period of hyperinflation. On August 4 a mushroom cloud explosion, blamed on negligent storage and maintenance of highly explosive material, caused extensive damage to Beirut, the heart of Lebanon’s economy. Public anger, expressed especially through rejuvenated protests, led to the resignation of the entire technocratic cabinet over the following week; it took more than a year for a new cabinet to be appointed.

In May 2022 voters registered their frustration with the political establishment, including Hezbollah, in a legislative election. The March 8 bloc lost its majority in the National Assembly in favor of independent newcomers. The bloc remained predominant in the parliament nonetheless, and its parliament speaker was retained. But when Aoun’s presidency came to an end in October, Hezbollah struggled to muster support for an ally—a grandson of former president Suleiman Franjieh (1970–76)—to replace him. The office remained indefinitely vacant.

Conflict with Israel beginning in 2023

In 2023 Hezbollah and the IDF faced confrontations over the Shebaa Farms, a strip of land in the Golan Heights claimed by Lebanon, Israel, and Syria. Hezbollah stepped up its cross-border attacks after Hamas, an allied Palestinian militant group in the Gaza Strip, attacked southern Israel on October 7 and Israel launched the Israel-Hamas War in response. Hezbollah pledged to continue firing into Israel until the fighting in the Gaza Strip came to an end. In 2024 the IDF killed a number of Hezbollah commanders through targeted strikes in Lebanon as Israel’s leadership continued to focus on its war with Hamas. But, as Israel shifted its attention increasingly toward its northern border in September, thousands of pagers and walkie-talkies belonging to members of Hezbollah exploded, killing dozens of people and injuring thousands of others. The attack was followed days later by an onslaught of Israeli air strikes in southern Lebanon and Beirut that Israel said targeted Hezbollah weapons but killed hundreds of people, including civilians. On September 25 Hezbollah launched a missile toward central Israel for the first time, aiming for Tel Aviv, although it was intercepted by Israel’s Iron Dome air defense system.

On September 27 the Israeli air force dropped more than 80 bombs into the Dahieh neighborhood just south of Beirut in a strike targeting Nasrallah. His body was found and identified the following day, and his death was confirmed by Hezbollah. On October 1 Israeli ground forces entered southern Lebanon; within the first 24 hours eight Israeli soldiers were killed and more than 30 wounded in clashes with Hezbollah fighters. The devastation in Lebanon over the following two months exceeded that of the 2006 war and included wide destruction in southern Lebanon. A ceasefire agreement announced on November 26 was based largely around the provisions of United Nations Resolution 1701 that brought the 2006 war to an end. The withdrawal of Hezbollah north of the Litani River, a key provision of the 2006 resolution, had not previously been enforced and was among the primary tensions that led to the escalation in violence in 2023 and 2024.