Lemon v. Kurtzman

Lemon v. Kurtzman, legal case in which the United States Supreme Court on June 28, 1971, ruled (8–0 as to a Pennsylvania statute and 8–1 as to a Rhode Island statute) that state funding for nonpublic and nonsecular schools in Rhode Island and Pennsylvania violated the establishment clause of the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, which states that “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion.” The decision put forth a test, later called the “Lemon test,” to adjudicate alleged violations of the establishment clause. The test was employed in many later court cases until it was explicitly rejected by the Supreme Court in 2022.

Background

Lemon v. Kurtzman stemmed from statutes passed in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island that reimbursed teachers at nonpublic and nonsecular or parochial schools. Pennsylvania’s Nonpublic Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1968 reimbursed—or, alternately phrased, purchased educational services from—teachers at nonpublic schools who were teaching secular subjects. The funds covered teacher salaries, textbooks, and instructional materials. Most of the contracted schools under this statute were Roman Catholic institutions. Beginning in 1969, Rhode Island’s Salary Supplement Act similarly granted teachers at nonpublic schools 15 percent of their salaries for teaching classes also taught at public schools. In Rhode Island it was found that all of the teachers receiving funds under the act were employed at Roman Catholic parochial schools. In both states the statutes in question explicitly prohibited funding for teachers or courses providing instruction in religious subjects.

Various taxpaying citizens and civil rights groups filed suit against these statutes, claiming that they funneled government funds to religious organizations and thus violated the separation of church and state—specifically, the establishment clause’s prohibition of laws constituting an establishment of religion. The cases were heard in federal district courts: in Rhode Island as Earley v. DiCenso and DiCenso v. Robinson (both 1970) and in Pennsylvania as Lemon v. Kurtzman (1970). Though Rhode Island’s statute was declared unconstitutional, Pennsylvania’s was upheld as constitutional. In the Pennsylvania case Alton Lemon, a noted civil rights leader living in Philadelphia who had a child in the Pennsylvania public school system, was the lead plaintiff. He was joined by many community and religious groups, such as the Pennsylvania chapter of the NAACP, church and Jewish groups, Americans United for the Separation of Church and State, and the local American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). The defendant in Pennsylvania was David Kurtzman, the superintendent of instruction for Pennsylvania public schools. The district court cases concerning the Rhode Island statute were combined with the Pennsylvania suit upon their appeal to the Supreme Court.

Precedents

Lemon v. Kurtzman followed on the heels of other important establishment clause judicial decisions. In Everson v. Board of Education (1947) the Supreme Court found that a local school board’s reimbursements to parents for the cost of transporting their children to parochial schools did not violate the establishment clause. In the landmark case School District of Abington Township v. Schempp (1963), the Court found that legally or officially mandated Bible reading or prayer in public schools was unconstitutional even if students may absent themselves upon parental request. Following that decision, the Court ruled in Board of Education v. Allen (1968) that a New York state program that loaned textbooks to both public- and private-school students was constitutional, since the books were given to students—who were considered the beneficiaries along with their parents—rather than to the parochial schools. Finally, in Walz v. Tax Commission of the City of New York (1970)—a case cited frequently in the justices’ opinions in Lemon—the Court ruled that property tax exemptions for churches did not violate the establishment clause, since the exemptions did not favor one religion over another, did not promote or challenge religious groups, and involved only minimal entanglement between religious groups and the government.

Majority opinion and the “Lemon test”

In its majority opinion, delivered by Chief Justice Warren Burger, the Supreme Court reversed (8–0) the Pennsylvania court’s decision and upheld (8–1) the rulings of the Rhode Island courts. Justice Thurgood Marshall did not participate in the Court’s decision regarding the Pennsylvania law but concurred in its assessment of the Rhode Island law. Justice Byron White, meanwhile, concurred in the Court’s Pennsylvania decision but dissented from its Rhode Island ruling. Justices William Douglas, Hugo Black, and William Brennan filed additional concurrences in the majority opinion.

The Court declared both statutes unconstitutional on the grounds that they involved an “excessive entanglement between government and religion.” In response to the argument that the funding supported only secular education, the Court held that parochial schools were an “an integral part of the religious mission of the Catholic Church.” Among concerns raised in the decision, in addition to the overarching theme of “excessive entanglement,” was the difficulty of government oversight needed to ensure that funds were not going toward religious education. There was also concern that the government’s effective support of certain religions might exacerbate political divisions between different religions. The majority concluded its opinion by assessing the consistency of government-supported sectarian education with the religion clauses in the First Amendment:

The sole question is whether state aid to these [church-related] schools can be squared with the dictates of the Religion Clauses. Under our system, the choice has been made that government is to be entirely excluded from the area of religious instruction, and churches excluded from the affairs of government. The Constitution decrees that religion must be a private matter for the individual, the family, and the institutions of private choice, and that, while some involvement and entanglement are inevitable, lines must be drawn.

The Court’s holding established a three-prong “test”—subsequently called the “Lemon test”—for determining whether a law abides by the establishment clause.

In summary, the court’s decision in Lemon v. Kurtzman found that the Pennsylvania and Rhode Island laws passed the first prong of the test, were unclear with regard to the second prong, but failed the third prong, concerning excessive entanglement.

Influence and abandonment

The Supreme Court’s decision in Lemon v. Kurtzman and the establishment of the Lemon test influenced numerous subsequent judicial decisions. An immediate follow-up was Sloan v. Lemon (1973), in which the Court declared unconstitutional a law passed in Pennsylvania (a mere two months after the decision in Lemon v. Kurtzman) authorizing direct reimbursements to parents for their children’s tuition at parochial and other private schools. The majority opinion, written by Justice Lewis Powell, determined that, with the law, Pennsylvania had selected a class of its citizens for a “special economic benefit.” A related matter came up in Pennsylvania in Meek v. Pittenger (1975), wherein the Court ruled two Pennsylvania education laws to be in violation of the establishment clause: the laws authorized the use of state-purchased materials and equipment in nonpublic schools and provided auxiliary services to children in those schools. The Court determined, however, that loaning textbooks to nonpublic school students was permissible.

On the same day that it handed down Lemon, in Tilton v. Richardson (1971) the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963 against an establishment clause challenge, although the statute allowed religious colleges and universities to participate in a funding program for the construction of facilities. Following those two decisions, in Hunt v. McNair (1973) the Court found a South Carolina program that provided institutions of higher education, including religiously affiliated institutions, with financial assistance for improvements to campuses did not constitute state support of religion in violation of the establishment clause. Similarly, in Roemer v. Board of Public Works of Maryland (1976), the Court upheld a Maryland state law that had authorized the disbursement of public funds to religiously affiliated institutions of higher education that did not award “primarily theological or seminary degrees.”

Some decisions following the Lemon test, and its explicit original context of educational institutions, further curtailed the role of religion in public education. In New York v. Cathedral Academy (1977), the Court found unconstitutional a New York statute that allowed nonpublic schools—including those with religious affiliations—to be reimbursed for state-mandated services. In Stone v. Graham (1980), the Court found unconstitutional a Kentucky statute requiring school officials to post a copy of the Ten Commandments (purchased with private contributions) on a wall in every public school classroom. A similar matter and application of the Lemon test played out in Wallace v. Jaffree (1985), in which the Court ruled unconstitutional an Alabama statute that authorized a one-minute period of silence in all public schools “for meditation or voluntary prayer.” And two years later, in Edwards v. Aguillard, the Court declared unconstitutional a Louisiana statute barring the teaching of evolution in public schools unless accompanied by the teaching of creationism.

Many other cases applying the Lemon test followed, and they attempted to work out what some scholars consider to be its inherent ambiguities. While Lemon was considered something of a landmark case, the legal tide began to flow in a different direction. In Mueller v. Allen (1983), the Court ruled that a Minnesota law allowing state taxpayers to deduct various educational expenses—including those incurred at sectarian schools—did not violate the establishment clause. It was later decided, in Corporation of the Presiding Bishop of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints v. Amos (1987), that organizations affiliated with the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints had not committed religious discrimination under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 when they fired employees who refused or were ineligible to become members of the church. In Agostini v. Felton (1997), the Court held that the New York City Board of Education’s practice of employing public school teachers to provide on-site remedial instruction to educationally deprived students in parochial schools did not violate the establishment clause. That decision, written by Justice Sandra Day O’Connor, began a shift in the Court’s interpretation of the constitutionally mandated separation of church and state and in its corresponding application of the Lemon test. Thus, in Mitchell v. Helms (2000), it was held that a federal program that loaned instructional materials and equipment to schools, including those that were religiously affiliated, was permissible.

A number of related cases concerning the establishment clause and public schools involved prayer on school grounds, including the case that would eventually end the Lemon test in 2022. Notably, in Lee v. Weisman (1992), the Court found it unconstitutional for a public school in Rhode Island to have a member of the clergy deliver a prayer at graduation ceremonies. Furthermore, in Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe (2000), the Court held that a Texas school board policy that allowed “student-led, student-initiated prayer” before varsity high-school football games was a violation of the establishment clause.

The trend against applying the Lemon test increased significantly with American Legion v. American Humanist Association (2019), in which the Court declared that a 40-foot (12-meter) cross erected in a memorial park for veterans maintained by public funds in Bladensburg, Maryland, did not violate the establishment clause, because the cross symbol has a meaning beyond religious contexts. It was determined in that decision that the Lemon test did not apply to “longstanding monuments, symbols, and practices.”

The Lemon test met its official end with Kennedy v. Bremerton School District (2022). That case challenged the Bremerton, Washington, school district’s firing of Joseph Kennedy, a high-school football coach who had led prayers after games. The Court’s majority decision—written by Justice Neil Gorsuch and joined by Justices John Roberts, Clarence Thomas, Samuel Alito, Amy Coney Barrett, and Brett Kavanaugh (in part)—upheld free speech and free exercise of religion rights in a public school setting. Moreover, it expressly “abandoned” the Lemon test. The Court ruled that, “in place of Lemon and the endorsement test, this Court has instructed that the Establishment Clause must be interpreted by ‘reference to historical practices and understandings.’ ” It further declared that “a natural reading of the First Amendment suggests that the Clauses [establishment and free exercise of religion] have ‘complementary’ purposes, not warring ones where one Clause is always sure to prevail over the others.” In her dissent, Justice Sonia Sotomayor—joined by Justices Elena Kagan and Steven Breyer—wrote, “Today’s decision goes beyond merely misreading the record. The Court overrules Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U. S. 602 (1971), and calls into question decades of subsequent precedents that it deems ‘offshoot[s]’ of that decision.”