During the period of orthodox dominance, some Lutheran theologians argued that Christianity was not so much a system of doctrine as a guide for practical Christian living. Foremost among them was Johann Arndt (1555–1621), whose devotional writings were extremely popular in the 17th century. Arndt’s major work, The Four Books of True Christianity (1605–09), was a guide to the meditative and devotional life. Arndt has been called the father of Pietism because of his influence on those who later developed the movement. The Pietist movement was also shaped by English theologians William Perkins, William Ames, and Richard Baxter.
Pietism had its beginnings in 1675, when the Frankfurt pastor Philipp Jakob Spener published his book Pious Desires, in which he called for greater commitment to Christian living and a fundamental reform of theological education. Stressing the religion of the heart and the piety of the individual, the movement cultivated “small churches within the larger church” for prayer, Bible reading, moral scrutiny, and works of charity. Although Spener gave no thought to leaving the Lutheran Church, he was deeply aggrieved by what he considered the ignorance of the clergy and the church’s lack of spiritual vitality.
Spener’s notions were institutionalized in the town of Halle, Germany, by August Hermann Francke, who established the Frankesche Stiftungen (“Francke Foundations”) schools as well as an orphanage, a printing press, and similar establishments. These Halle Foundations, still in existence today, put into practice Pietist beliefs regarding sanctified living, practical education, and concern for the neighbour in need. The Pietists’ emphasis on education in particular influenced the development of the Enlightenment in Germany.
Modernity
In the 18th century, the European Enlightenment, embracing the insights of the modern scientific revolution, challenged traditional Christian assumptions concerning miracles, the fulfillment of prophecy, and divine revelation. Lutheran philosophers and theologians, such as Christian Wolff (1679–1754) and Johann Salomo Semler (1725–91), defended the notion of the harmony of reason and revelation. In contrast to medieval scholasticism, which advocated the use of reason but emphasized the primacy of revelation, Lutheran theology subordinated revelation and declared reason to be the key to understanding the will of God. This sentiment, known as Neology, dominated Lutheranism in the second half of the 18th century. As a result, liberal and conservative wings began to form in the 19th century, a division that has continued into the 21st century. In this way Lutheranism mirrored developments in other Christian churches, both Roman Catholic and Protestant. Regardless of denominational differences, the real division increasingly was between those who embraced the new notions of the Enlightenment—that Christianity was in effect natural religion—and those who rejected those notions. For those influenced by the Enlightenment, traditional theological disputes, such as those between Lutherans and the Reformed churches, ceased to be fundamentally important.
It was against this background that King Frederick William III of Prussia in 1817 directed that the Lutheran and Reformed churches in Prussia use an identical order of worship. The Prussian ruling house had been Calvinist since the early 17th century; its subjects were Lutheran, even though the territorial enlargement of Prussia after the Napoleonic Wars had added a substantial Reformed populace. Frederick William, a devout individual, was convinced that no substantive theological differences separated the two churches. Moreover, Prussia had undergone a comprehensive administrative realignment that greatly centralized the government, and the king sought the same for the Lutheran and Reformed churches. While some accepted the king’s dictum, others fiercely opposed the merger and found themselves suppressed and even persecuted. When the opponents were finally allowed to emigrate to the United States in the 1840s, they established the conservative Lutheran synods of Missouri and Buffalo. Continuing opposition eventually led Frederick William IV to declare in 1852 that the union of Lutherans and Reformed was not doctrinal but only administrative. Nevertheless, most Prussian regional churches had by then adopted a uniform church order, taking the name Churches of the Prussian Union.
In the 19th century Lutheran theology in Germany was bitterly divided between three schools—a liberal school, represented by Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob Paulus (1761–1851); a traditional-confessional school, represented by Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg (1802–69) and Claus Harms (1778–1855); and a mediating school, which included August Neander (1789–1850) but was chiefly influenced by Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (1768–1834). Later in the century Albrecht Ritschl (1822–89) sought to forge a synthesis between the Christian faith and modernity, one that did not fit into any particular theological school, but he was bitterly attacked by both liberals and conservatives, the supernaturalists and the rationalists.
The surprising vigour of the Lutheran traditionalists, called Old Lutherans, was related to the religious awakening that swept through Germany in the middle of the century. Allied with the Old Lutherans were the New Lutherans, who sought to revive ancient liturgical traditions and to combine fidelity to the Lutheran confessions with an emphasis on the importance of the sacraments and the church. Old and New Lutherans dominated the Lutheran churches and theology from the 1840s to the 1870s.