providence

Basic forms of providence

Basically, there are two possible forms of belief in providence. The first is belief in more or less divine beings that are responsible for the world generally and for the welfare of humans specifically. Although omnipotence as an attribute of gods is rare, it is true that, as a rule, gods and other divine beings have considerable power not only over human destiny but also over nature. The gods take care of the world and of humankind, and their intentions toward humans are normally positive. The capriciousness and arbitrariness of the gods of paganism exist for the most part only in the imagination of those Christian theologians who attempted to denigrate the pagan religions. Gods and humans are generally connected into one community by reciprocal duties and privileges. The belief in evil spirits does not contradict this belief in providence but, on the contrary, strengthens it, just as in Christianity the belief in Satan might serve to strengthen the belief in God.

The second form consists of belief in a cosmic order in which human welfare has its appointed place. This order is usually conceived as a divine order that is well intentioned toward human beings and is working for their well-being as long as they are willing to insert themselves into it, to follow it willingly, and not to upset it by perversion or rebellion. The firmness of the order, however, may become inexorable and thus lead to fatalism, the belief in an impersonal destiny against which human agency is powerless. In that case a clash between the concepts of providence and fatalism is inevitable. In most religions, however, both views are combined in some way.

Etymological history of the term

The English word providence is derived from the Latin term providentia, which primarily means foresight or foreknowledge but also forethought and providence in the religious sense; thus, Cicero used the phrase the “providence of the gods” (deorum providentia). The Stoic philosophers thoroughly discussed the significance of the term providence, and some of them wrote treatises on the subject. A hymn to Zeus written about 300 bce by Cleanthes, a Greek poet and philosopher, is a glorification of the god as a benevolent and foreseeing ruler of the world and of humankind. According to Cleanthes, God has planned the world in accordance with this providence:

For thee this whole vast cosmos, wheeling round

The earth, obeys, and where thou leadest

It follows, ruled willingly by thee.

The author asserts that “naught upon Earth is wrought in thy despite, O God” and that in Zeus all things are harmonized. Seneca, a Roman Stoic philosopher, formulates the belief in providence in one of his dialogues as follows: humans should believe “that providence rules the world and that God cares for us.” The Stoic school disagreed with those who believed that the world was ruled by blind fate; they did not deny that a controlling power exists, but, as everything happens according to a benevolent divine plan, they preferred to call this power providence. According to the Stoic emperor Marcus Aurelius, God wills everything that happens to human beings, and for that reason nothing that occurs can be considered evil. Stoic ideas about providence influenced Christianity.

In later Latin, after the emperor Augustus (died 14 ce), the word providence was used as a designation of the deity. Seneca, for example, wrote that it is proper to apply the term providence to God. Finally, providence was personified as a proper goddess in her own right by Macrobius, a Neoplatonic Roman author, who wrote in defense of paganism about 400 ce.

Epicurus, a 4th–3rd-century-bce Greek philosopher, contested the Stoic belief in divine providence, but the objections of his followers could not change the spiritual climate of the Greco-Roman world. More eloquent, perhaps, than the dissertations of the learned Stoic philosophers were the many stories found in a work by Aelian, an early 3rd-century-ce Roman rhetorician, about strange events and miraculous occurrences ascribed to providence. Aelian, however, was more interested in sensational stories than in historic accuracy.

The several meanings of the Latin word providentia exactly mirror those of its Greek equivalent, pronoia. Herodotus, the historian of the 5th century bce, was the first Greek author to use the word in a religious sense when he mentioned divine providence as the source of the wisdom that keeps nature in balance and prevents one kind of creature from prevailing over all others. Writers such as the historian Xenophon and the biographer Plutarch used the word for the watchful care of the gods over humankind and the world.

The belief in the existence of a blind and inexorable fate can lead to a conflict with the belief in a benevolent providence. In the Greco-Roman world, where fatalistic belief was strong and where it found a popular expression in astrology, the belief that the whole world, but particularly the human realm, is governed by the stars was contested by Judaism and Christianity. The Talmud, the authoritative collection of Jewish tradition, teaches that Israel is subject to no star but only to God. An example of this conflict is also found in the novel The Golden Ass by Apuleius, a 2nd-century-ce philosopher and rhetorician deeply interested in Hellenistic mystery cults, which taught a faith that liberated adherents from the power of the stars. In the novel the hero is converted to the goddess Isis. “Lucius, my friend,” the priest of the goddess addresses him,

you have endured and performed many labours and withstood the buffetings of all the winds of ill luck. Now at last you have put into the harbour of peace and stand before the altar of loving-kindness. Neither your noble blood and rank nor your education sufficed to keep you from falling a slave to pleasure; youthful follies ran away with you. Your luckless curiosity earned you a sinister punishment. But blind Fortune, after tossing you maliciously about from peril to peril has somehow, without thinking what she was doing, landed you here in religious felicity. Let her begone now and fume furiously wherever she pleases, let her find some other plaything for her cruel hands. She has no power to hurt those who devote their lives to the honour and service of our Goddess’s majesty.

The Christian use of the term providence, besides being profoundly influenced by Greek and Roman thought, is based on the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) story of the patriarch Abraham’s sacrifice of his son Isaac, which is found in the book of Genesis. Abraham tells Isaac, “God will provide himself with a young beast for a sacrifice, my son.” The Hebrew language lacks a proper word to express the notion of providence, but the concept is well known in the Hebrew Scriptures.

In the New Testament, the Greek word pronoia and related words are used rarely, but in no case are they used in the later Christian sense of providence. This is of interest because the idea of providence as such is far from foreign to the religious thinking of the New Testament. In the Gospel According to Matthew, for example, Jesus says:

Are not two sparrows sold for a penny? And not one of them will fall to the ground without your Father’s will. But even the hairs of your head are numbered. Fear not, therefore; you are of more value than many sparrows.

Providence as used in Christianity is thus a dogmatic term rather than a biblical term; it indicates that God not only created the world but also governs it and cares for its welfare. A well-known German reference work, Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (1908; “Religion Past and Present”), gives a more elaborate and more theological definition of providence:

God keeps the world in existence by his care, he rules and leads the world and mankind deliberately according to his purpose, and he does this in his omnipotence as God the Creator, in his goodness and love as revealed by his son Jesus Christ, and to further the salvation of mankind through the Holy Spirit.