Cultural continuity and change
The 16th century: European exploration and conquest
Although permanent colonial settlements were not established in the region until 1565, when the Spanish founded Saint Augustine in what is now Florida, the peoples of the Southeast suffered greatly during the 16th century. The earliest expeditions, by Juan Ponce de Léon (1513, 1521) and Panfilo de Narváez (1528; best known for the narrative produced by Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca), were short-lived but exposed Indigenous peoples to the devastating effects of European diseases to which they had not been previously exposed. Epidemics soon decimated the Native population: mortality rates for these nonimmune populations are estimated to have been as high as 50 to 90 percent (these rates generally combine deaths due directly to disease with those resulting from subsidiary causes, such as famine).
Hernando de Soto, who had proved instrumental in the conquest of the Inca (1532), was eventually commissioned by Spain to conquer La Florida. From 1539 to 1543 his expedition traveled through what are now the states of Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Louisiana. Some Southeastern tribes greeted de Soto as they would a paramount chief, offering food, tribute of pearls and copper, sexual access to women, and porters. Other towns in de Soto’s path attacked the expedition. However, as the Spanish group included some 600–700 heavily armed professional soldiers, the conquistadors’ counteroffensives left few settlements intact.
By the close of the 16th century several factors had combined to disrupt traditional life in the Southeast. Thousands of individuals were killed during direct warfare with explorers. European diseases caused thousands more deaths. The subsidiary effects of these losses further devastated the Southeast: groups with too few people to plant and hunt were forced into starvation or refugee status; much practical and ritual knowledge was lost; and Indigenous political structures were weakened. The final and perhaps least well-known factor was the trafficking of enslaved Indigenous persons, who were generally captured by rival tribelets and sold to the Spanish for export to New England, the Caribbean, and elsewhere. Many groups on the coast and in the Piedmont lost their political or social viability during this period; their surviving members generally became part of larger, more powerful tribes, such as the Choctaw, Cherokee, or various member tribes of the Muscogee confederacy.