Unitarianism and Universalism
Unitarianism and Universalism, liberal religious movements that have merged in the United States. In previous centuries they appealed for their views to Scripture interpreted by reason, but most contemporary Unitarians and Universalists base their religious beliefs on reason as well as experience.
Unitarianism as an organized religious movement emerged during the Reformation period in Poland, Transylvania, and England and later in North America from the original New England Puritan churches. In each country Unitarian leaders sought to achieve a reformation that was completely in accordance with the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament. In particular, they found no warrant for the doctrine of the Trinity accepted by other Christian churches.
Universalism as a religious movement developed from the influences of radical Pietism in the 18th century and dissent in the Baptist and Congregational churches from predestinarian views that only a small number, the elect, will be saved. Universalists argued that Scripture does not teach eternal torment in hell, and with Origen, the 3rd-century Alexandrian theologian, they affirmed a universal restoration of all to God.
History
Servetus and Socinus
In De Trinitatis erroribus (1531; “On the Errors of the Trinity”) and Christianismi restitutio (1553; “The Restitution of Christianity”), the Spanish physician and theologian Michael Servetus provided important stimulus for the emergence of Unitarianism. Servetus’s execution for heresy in 1553 led Sebastian Castellio, a liberal humanist, to advocate religious toleration in De haereticis… (1554; Concerning Heretics”) and caused some Italian religious exiles, who were then in Switzerland, to move to Poland.
One of the most important of these Italian exiles was Faustus Socinus (1539–1604). His acquisition in 1562 of the papers of his uncle Laelius Socinus (1525–62), a theologian suspected of heterodox views, led him to adopt some of Laelius’s proposals for the reformation of Christian doctrines and to become an anti-Trinitarian theologian. Laelius’s commentary on the prologue to the Gospel According to John presented Christ as the revealer of God’s new creation and denied Christ’s preexistence. Faustus’s own Explicatio primae partis primi capitis Ioannis (first edition published in Transylvania in 1567–68; “Explanation of the First Part of the First Chapter of John’s Gospel”) and his manuscripts of 1578, De Jesu Christo Servatore (first published 1594; “On Jesus Christ, the Saviour”) and De statu primi hominis ante lapsum (1578; “On the State of the First Man Before the Fall”), were of subsequent influence, the first particularly in Transylvania and all three in Poland.
Unitarianism in Poland
Unitarianism appeared in Poland in incipient form in 1555 when Peter Gonesius, a Polish student, proclaimed views derived from Servetus at a Polish Reformed Church synod. Controversies that ensued with tritheists, ditheists, and those who affirmed the unity of God resulted in a schism in 1565 and the formation of the Minor Reformed Church of Poland (Polish Brethren). Gregory Paul, Marcin Czechowic, and Georg Schomann soon emerged as leaders of the new church. They were encouraged by Georgius Blandrata (1515–88), an Italian physician to the Polish-Italian bride of King John Sigismund, who aided the development of anti-Trinitarianism in Poland and Transylvania. In 1569 Raków was founded as the Polish Brethren’s central community.
Faustus Socinus went to Poland in 1579. He rejected Anabaptist insistence on immersionist adult baptism and affirmed that Jesus Christ was only a fully human man whom God had resurrected and to whom he had given all power in heaven and earth over the church. Socinus emphasized the validity of prayer to Christ as an expression of honour and as a request for aid. Through his ability in theological debate, he soon became the leader of the Polish Brethren, whose adherents were frequently referred to as Socinians.
After Socinus’s death his followers published the Racovian Catechism (1605). The hostility of their opponents, however, caused the destruction of the Socinians’ famous printing press and school at Raków (1632). In 1658 a legislative decree was enacted stating that by 1660 the Socinians must either become Roman Catholics, go into exile, or face execution. A few of these Polish exiles reached Kolozsvár, the centre of the Transylvanian Unitarian movement, and some of their leaders moved to the Netherlands, where they continued the publication of Socinian books.
Transylvanian Unitarianism
Blandrata encouraged Ferenc Dávid (1510–79), a Transylvanian theologian, to deliver anti-Trinitarian sermons. Study at Wittenberg had led Dávid to convert from Roman Catholicism to Lutheranism. As superintendent of Transylvanian Lutheran churches, Dávid had engaged in debates with Peter Melius, leader of the Transylvanian Reformed Church, with the result that Dávid had joined the Reformed Church, of which he soon became superintendent. Cooperation between Dávid and Blandrata led to the publication of two Unitarian books, De falsa et vera unius Dei Patris (1567; “On the False and True Unity of God the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit”) and De regno Christi… (1569; “On the Reign of Christ”), which showed the influences of Servetus and Laelius Socinus.
Biblical study and discussions with colleagues (e.g., with Jacobus Palaeologus) led Dávid to non-adorantism (denial that prayer should be addressed to Christ), which caused a serious crisis. In 1568 John Sigismund, Unitarian king of Transylvania, granted religious freedom to Catholics, Lutherans, the Reformed Church, and those who were soon to be called Unitarians, and in 1571 the Transylvanian Diet gave constitutional recognition to all four received religions. But Sigismund’s successor, Stephen Báthory, forbade further innovations (changes in doctrine from beliefs held during Sigismund’s reign). Dávid’s non-adorantist innovation thus endangered the Unitarians’ legal status. Blandrata sought to protect them by the arrest and trial of Dávid, who died in prison in 1579. This oldest Unitarian Church survives in Hungary and Romania.