ampersand
ampersand, term used to refer to the symbol &, which stems from the ligature of the Latin word et, meaning “and.” The term ampersand is derived from “and per se and.” The symbol has also been used as part of &c in lieu of etc. (et cetera). The aesthetic features of the symbol vary according to the font and variants chosen, although the roman type has prevailed. One of the most popular signs in the English-speaking world, the ampersand is also used in other languages; for example, it is the Italian e commerciale, the Spanish y comercial, the Portuguese e comercial, the French esperluette, the German Et-Zeichen, and the Swedish et-tecken.
In 1953 German graphic designer Jan Tschichold compiled a history of the multiple versions of the ampersand, ending his account with forms used in the late 19th century. His history includes what is thought to be the oldest form of the ampersand, which was discovered in Pompeii, as well as an 8th-century version that is similar to the current versions of the symbol. The ampersand gained popularity during the Renaissance, as scribes associated it with the splendour of ancient Rome and incorporated it in roman and italic lettering. This version of the ampersand paved the way for the modern italic form of the symbol. However, the Tironian shorthand for et, which was devised by Cicero’s servant Marcus Tullius Tiro in the 1st century bce, was prevalent in the black-letter manuscripts that dominated German books throughout the 19th century. Its use was gradually abandoned by most languages by the end of the 19th century, with the notable exception of Gaelic, in which the symbol continues to be used in the early 21st century.
The term ampersand first appeared in the English language in 1835 and was used as a letter in its own right. It was taught as the 27th letter of the alphabet, after z, to 19th-century British students, who recited it as “and per se and,” owing to its stand-alone nature (Latin per se means “by itself”). (This mirrored the practice of a and I, which, because of their use as words in their own right, led to the usage “and per se a” and “and per se I,” respectively.) The inarticulate pronunciation of “and per se and” fostered several corruptions, such as “Ann Passy Ann,” but “ampersand” eventually became the norm. It was featured in nursery rhymes about the alphabet; one such ended “X, Y, and ampersand / All wished for a piece in hand.” The symbol, however, ceased to be part of the English alphabet by the late 19th century.
The ampersand pervades the English-speaking business world. Brands that have included it in their names include Marks & Spencer, Procter & Gamble, Tiffany & Co., AT&T, Holland & Barrett, and M&M’S. The symbol can also be found in brands beyond the anglophone sphere, such as the Italian Dolce & Gabbana and Paul&Shark, the Swiss Lindt & Sprüngli AG, the Swedish H&M, and the Spanish Pull&Bear. Reasons for its widespread popularity among executives include search engine optimization, concision, and brand recall.
Several musical artists, often duos, have included the ampersand in their names—for example, Simon & Garfunkel, Ike & Tina Turner, Hall & Oates, and Brooks & Dunn. The symbol is also used in the names of music genres such as R&B (rhythm and blues) and rock & roll, and its use in other fields is exemplified by R&D (research and development) and F&B (food and beverage). In literature, it is sometimes used in bibliographies when listing coauthors.
The ampersand also plays a significant role in programming, where its use can go beyond its original meaning. In SGML, for instance, it is used with other symbols to represent a special character. For example, the at sign (@) is encoded by means of @, while © is used for the © symbol. Some coding languages use two ampersands together (&&) as a reference to the “and” Boolean operator. In the C++ programming language, the ampersand refers to an address in memory. The ampersand itself is encoded by means of & or &.