ancient logic

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ancient logic

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ancient logic, in the history of Western philosophy, the concepts, principles, and systems of logical argumentation that originated in ancient Greece, primarily in the philosophy of Aristotle (384–322 bce), and were later developed, consolidated, and documented by mainly Greek philosophers and commentators until approximately the mid-6th century ce.

Precursors of ancient logic

There was a medieval tradition according to which the Greek philosopher Parmenides (5th century bce) invented logic while living on a rock in Egypt. The story is pure legend, but it does reflect the fact that Parmenides was the first philosopher to use an extended argument for his views rather than merely proposing a vision of reality. But using arguments is not the same as studying them, and Parmenides never systematically formulated or studied principles of argumentation in their own right. Indeed, there is no evidence that he was even aware of the implicit rules of inference used in presenting his doctrine.

Perhaps Parmenides’ use of argument was inspired by the practice of early Greek mathematics among the Pythagoreans. Thus, it is significant that Parmenides is reported to have had a Pythagorean teacher. But the history of Pythagoreanism in this early period is shrouded in mystery, and it is hard to separate fact from legend.

If Parmenides was not aware of general rules underlying his arguments, the same perhaps is not true for his disciple Zeno of Elea (5th century bce). Zeno was the author of many arguments, known collectively as “Zeno’s Paradoxes,” purporting to infer impossible consequences from a non-Parmenidean view of things and so to refute such a view and indirectly to establish Parmenides’ monist position. The logical strategy of establishing a claim by showing that its opposite leads to absurd consequences is known as reductio ad absurdum. The fact that Zeno’s arguments were all of this form suggests that he recognized and reflected on the general pattern.

Other authors too contributed to a growing Greek interest in inference and proof. Early rhetoricians and Sophists—e.g., Gorgias, Hippias, Prodicus, and Protagoras (all 5th century bce)—cultivated the art of defending or attacking a thesis by means of argument. This concern for the techniques of argument on occasion merely led to verbal displays of debating skills, what Plato called “eristic.” But it is also true that the Sophists were instrumental in bringing argumentation to the central position it came uniquely to hold in Greek thought. The Sophists were, for example, among the first people anywhere to demand that moral claims be justified by reasons.

Certain particular teachings of the Sophists and rhetoricians are significant for the early history of logic. For example, Protagoras is reported to have been the first to distinguish different kinds of sentences: questions, answers, prayers, and injunctions. Prodicus appears to have maintained that no two words can mean exactly the same thing. Accordingly, he devoted much attention to carefully distinguishing and defining the meanings of apparent synonyms, including many ethical terms.

Socrates (c. 470–399 bce) is said to have attended Prodicus’s lectures. Like Prodicus, he pursued the definitions of things, particularly in the realm of ethics and values. These investigations, conducted by means of debate and argument as portrayed in the writings of Plato (428/427–348/347 bce), reinforced Greek interest in argumentation and emphasized the importance of care and rigour in the use of language.

Plato continued the work begun by the Sophists and by Socrates. In the Sophist, he distinguished affirmation from negation and made the important distinction between verbs and names (including both nouns and adjectives). He remarked that a complete statement (logos) cannot consist of either a name or a verb alone but requires at least one of each. This observation indicates that the analysis of language had developed to the point of investigating the internal structures of statements, in addition to the relations of statements as a whole to one another. This new development would be raised to a high art by Plato’s pupil Aristotle (384–322 bce).

There are passages in Plato’s writings where he suggests that the practice of argument in the form of dialogue (Platonic “dialectic”) has a larger significance beyond its occasional use to investigate a particular problem. The suggestion is that dialectic is a science in its own right, or perhaps a general method for arriving at scientific conclusions in other fields. These seminal but inconclusive remarks indicate a new level of generality in Greek speculation about reasoning.

Aristotle

Only fragments of the work of these thinkers are relevant to what is now considered logic. The systematic study of logic seems to have been undertaken first by Aristotle. Although Plato used dialectic as both a method of reasoning and a means of philosophical training, Aristotle established a system of rules and strategies for such reasoning. At the end of his Sophistic Refutations, he acknowledges the novelty of his enterprise. In most cases, he says, discoveries rely on previous labours by others. But then he adds:

Of the present inquiry, on the other hand, it was not the case that part of the work had been thoroughly done before, while part had not. Nothing existed at all….[O]n the subject of deduction we had absolutely nothing else of an earlier date to mention, but were kept at work for a long time in experimental researches.

(From The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation, ed. Jonathan Barnes, 1984, by permission of Oxford University Press.)

Aristotle’s logical writings comprise six works, known collectively as the Organon (“Tool”). The significance of the name is that logic, for Aristotle, was not one of the theoretical sciences. These were physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. Instead, logic was a tool used by all the sciences. (To say that logic is not a science in this sense is in no way to deny it is a rigorous discipline. The notion of a science was a very special one for Aristotle, most fully developed in his Posterior Analytics.)

Aristotle’s logical works, in their traditional but not chronological order, are:

Categories, which discusses Aristotle’s 10 basic kinds of entities: substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, state, action, and passion. Although the Categories is always included in the Organon, it has little to do with logic in the modern sense.
De interpretatione (On Interpretation), which includes a statement of Aristotle’s semantics, along with a study of the structure of certain basic kinds of propositions and their interrelations.
Prior Analytics (two books), containing the theory of syllogistic (described below).
Posterior Analytics (two books), presenting Aristotle’s theory of “scientific demonstration” in his special sense. This is Aristotle’s account of the philosophy of science or scientific methodology.
Topics (eight books), an early work, which contains a study of nondemonstrative reasoning. It is a miscellany of how to conduct a good argument.
Sophistic Refutations, a discussion of various kinds of fallacies. It was originally intended as a ninth book of the Topics.

The last two of these works present Aristotle’s theory of interrogative techniques as a universal method of knowledge seeking. The practice of such techniques in Aristotle’s day was actually competitive, and Aristotle was especially interested in strategies that could be used to “win” such “games.” Naturally, the ability to predict the “answer” that a certain line of questioning would yield represented an important advantage in such competitions. Aristotle noticed that the answer is completely predictable in cases where it is (in modern terminology) a logical consequence of earlier answers. Thus, he was led from the study of interrogative techniques to the study of the subject matter of logic in the narrow sense—that is, of relations of logical consequence. These relations are the subject matter of the four other books of the Organon. Aristotle nevertheless continued to conceive of logical reasoning as being conducted within an interrogative framework.

This background helps to explain why for Aristotle logical inferences are psychologically necessary. According to him, when the premises of an inference are such as to “form a single opinion,” “the soul must…affirm the conclusion.” The mind of the reasoner, in other words, cannot help but adopt the conclusion of the argument. This conception sharply distinguishes Aristotle’s logic from modern logic, in which rules of inference are thought of as permitting the reasoner to draw a certain conclusion but not as psychologically compelling him to do so.

Aristotle’s logic was a term logic, in the following sense. Consider the schema: “If every β is an α and every γ is a β, then every γ is an α.” The “α,” “β,” and “γ” are variables—i.e., placeholders. Any argument that fits this pattern is a valid syllogism and, in fact, a syllogism in the form known as Barbara (on this terminology, see below Syllogisms).

The variables here serve as placeholders for terms or names. Thus, replacing “α” by “substance,” “β” by “animal,” and “γ” by “dog” in the schema yields: “If every animal is a substance and every dog is an animal, then every dog is a substance,” a syllogism in Barbara. Aristotle’s logic was a term logic in the sense that it focused on logical relations between such terms in valid inferences.

Aristotle was the first logician to use variables. This innovation was tremendously important, since without them it would have been impossible for him to reach the level of generality and abstraction that he did.

Categorical forms

Most of Aristotle’s logic was concerned with certain kinds of propositions that can be analyzed as consisting of (1) usually a quantifier (“every,” “some,” or the universal negative quantifier “no”), (2) a subject, (3) a copula, (4) perhaps a negation (“not”), (5) a predicate. Propositions analyzable in this way were later called categorical propositions and fall into one or another of the following forms:

Universal affirmative: “Every β is an α.”
Universal negative: “Every β is not an α,” or equivalently “No β is an α.”
Particular affirmative: “Some β is an α.”
Particular negative: “Some β is not an α.”
Indefinite affirmative: “β is an α.”
Indefinite negative: “β is not an α.”
Singular affirmative: “x is an α,” where “x” refers to only one individual (e.g., “Socrates is an animal”).
Singular negative: “x is not an α,” with “x” as before.

Sometimes, and very often in the Prior Analytics, Aristotle adopted alternative but equivalent formulations. Instead of saying, for example, “Every β is an α,” he would say, “α belongs to every β” or “α is predicated of every β.”

In syllogistic, singular propositions (affirmative or negative) were generally ignored, and indefinite affirmatives and negatives were treated as equivalent to the corresponding particular affirmatives and negatives. In the Middle Ages, propositions of types 1–4 were said to be of forms A, E, I, and O, respectively. This notation will be used below.

In the De interpretatione Aristotle discussed ways in which affirmative and negative propositions with the same subjects and predicates can be opposed to one another. He observed that when two such propositions are related as forms A and E, they cannot be true together but can be false together. Such pairs Aristotle called contraries. When the two propositions are related as forms A and O or as forms E and I or as affirmative and negative singular propositions, then it must be that one is true and the other false. These Aristotle called contradictories. He had no special term for pairs related as forms I and O, although they were later called subcontraries. Subcontraries cannot be false together, although, as Aristotle remarked, they may be true together. The same holds for indefinite affirmatives and negatives, construed as equivalent to the corresponding particular forms. Note that if a universal proposition (affirmative or negative) is true, its contradictory is false, and so the subcontrary of that contradictory is true. Thus, propositions of form A imply the corresponding propositions of form I, and those of form E imply those of form O. These last relations were later called subalternation, and the particular propositions (affirmative or negative) were said to be subalternate to the corresponding universal propositions.

Near the beginning of the Prior Analytics, Aristotle formulated several rules later known collectively as the theory of conversion. To “convert” a proposition in this sense is to interchange its subject and predicate. Aristotle observed that propositions of forms E and I can be validly converted in this way: if no β is an α, then so too no α is a β, and if some β is an α, then so too some α is a β. In later terminology, such propositions were said to be converted “simply” (simpliciter). But propositions of form A cannot be converted in this way; if every β is an α, it does not follow that every α is a β. It does follow, however, that some α is a β. Such propositions, which can be converted provided that not only are their subjects and predicates interchanged but also the universal quantifier is weakened to a particular quantifier “some,” were later said to be converted “accidentally” (per accidens). Propositions of form O cannot be converted at all; from the fact that some animal is not a dog, it does not follow that some dog is not an animal. Aristotle used these laws of conversion in later chapters of the Prior Analytics to reduce other syllogisms to syllogisms in the first figure, as described below.

Syllogisms

Aristotle defined a syllogism as “discourse in which, certain things being stated something other than what is stated follows of necessity from their being so” (from The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation, ed. by Jonathan Barnes, 1984, by permission of Oxford University Press). But in practice he confined the term to arguments containing two premises and a conclusion, each of which is a categorical proposition. The subject and predicate of the conclusion each occur in one of the premises, together with a third term (the middle) that is found in both premises but not in the conclusion. A syllogism thus argues that because α and γ are related in certain ways to β (the middle) in the premises, they are related in a certain way to one another in the conclusion.

The predicate of the conclusion is called the major term, and the premise in which it occurs is called the major premise. The subject of the conclusion is called the minor term and the premise in which it occurs is called the minor premise. This way of describing major and minor terms conforms to Aristotle’s actual practice and was proposed as a definition by the 6th-century Greek commentator John Philoponus. But in one passage Aristotle put it differently: the minor term is said to be “included” in the middle and the middle “included” in the major term. This remark, which appears to have been intended to apply only to the first figure, has caused much confusion among some of Aristotle’s commentators, who interpreted it as applying to all three figures.

Aristotle distinguished three different figures of syllogisms, according to how the middle is related to the other two terms in the premises. In one passage, he says that if one wants to prove α of γ syllogistically, one finds a middle β such that either α is predicated of β and β of γ (first figure), β is predicated of both α and γ (second figure), or else both α and γ are predicated of β (third figure). All syllogisms must fall into one or another of these figures.

But there is plainly a fourth possibility, that β is predicated of α and γ of β. Many later logicians recognized such syllogisms as belonging to a separate, fourth figure. Aristotle explicitly mentioned such syllogisms but did not group them under a separate figure; his failure to do so has prompted much speculation among commentators and historians. Other logicians included these syllogisms under the first figure. The earliest to do this was Theophrastus (see below Theophrastus of Eresus), who reinterpreted the first figure in so doing.

Four figures, each with three propositions in one of four forms (A, E, I, O), yield a total of 256 possible syllogistic patterns. Each pattern is called a mood. Only 24 moods are valid, 6 in each figure. Some valid moods may be derived from others by subalternation; that is, if premises validly yield a conclusion of form A, the same premises will yield the corresponding conclusion of form I. So too with forms E and O. Such derived moods were not discussed by Aristotle; they seem to have been first recognized by Ariston of Alexandria (c. 50 bce). In the Middle Ages they were called “subalternate” moods. Disregarding them, there are 4 valid moods in each of the first two figures, 6 in the third figure, and 5 in the fourth. Aristotle recognized all 19 of them.

Following are the valid moods, including subalternate ones, under their medieval mnemonic names (subalternate moods are marked with an asterisk):

First figure: Barbara, Celarent, Darii, Ferio,

*Barbari, *Celaront.

Second figure: Cesare, Camestres, Festino, Baroco,

*Cesaro, *Camestrop.

Third figure: Darapti, Disamis, Datisi, Felapton,

Bocardo, Ferison.

Fourth figure: Bramantip, Camenes, Dimaris, Fesapo,

Fresison, *Camenop.

The sequence of vowels in each name indicates the sequence of categorical propositions in the mood in the order: major, minor, conclusion. Thus, for example, Celarent is a first-figure syllogism with an E-form major, A-form minor, and E-form conclusion.

If one assumes the nonsubalternate moods of the first figure, then, with two exceptions, all valid moods in the other figures can be proved by “reducing” them to one of those “axiomatic” first-figure moods. This reduction shows that, if the premises of the reducible mood are true, then it follows, by rules of conversion and one of the axiomatic moods, that the conclusion is true. The procedure is encoded in the medieval names:

The initial letter is the initial letter of the first-figure mood to which the given mood is reducible. Thus, Felapton is reducible to Ferio.
When it is not the final letter, s after a vowel means “Convert the sentence simply,” and p there means “Convert the sentence per accidens.”
When s or p is the final letter, the conclusion of the first-figure syllogism to which the mood is reduced must be converted simply or per accidens, respectively.
The letter m means “Change the order of the premises.”
When it is not the first letter, c means that the syllogism cannot be directly reduced to the first figure but must be proved by reductio ad absurdum. (There are two such moods.)
The letters b and d (except as initial letters) and l, n, t, and r serve only to facilitate pronunciation.

Thus, the premises of Felapton (third figure) are “No β is an α” and “Every β is a γ.” Convert the minor premise per accidens to “Some γ is a β,” as instructed by the “p” after the second vowel. This new proposition and the major premise of Felapton form the premises of a syllogism in Ferio (first figure), the conclusion of which is “Some γ is not an α,” which is also the conclusion of Felapton. Hence, given Ferio and the rule of per accidens conversion, the premises of Felapton validly imply its conclusion. In this sense, Felapton has been “reduced” to Ferio.

The two exceptional cases, which must be proved indirectly by reductio ad absurdum, are Baroco and Bocardo. Both are reducible indirectly to Barbara in the first figure as follows: Assume the A-form premise (the major in Baroco, the minor in Bocardo). Assume the contradictory of the conclusion. These yield a syllogism in Barbara, the conclusion of which contradicts the O-form premise of the syllogism to be reduced. Thus, given Barbara as axiomatic, and given the premises of the reducible syllogism, the contradictory of its conclusion is false, so the original conclusion is true.

Reduction and indirect proof together suffice to prove all moods not in the first figure. This fact, which Aristotle himself showed, makes his syllogistic the first deductive system in the history of logic.

Aristotle sometimes used yet another method of showing the validity of a syllogistic mood. Known as ekthesis (sometimes translated as “exposition”), it consists of choosing a particular object to represent a term—e.g., choosing one particular triangle to represent all triangles in geometric reasoning. The method of ekthesis is of great historical interest, in part because it amounts to the use of instantiation rules (rules that allow the introduction of an arbitrary individual having a certain property), which are the mainstay of modern logic. The same method was used under the same name also in Greek mathematics. Although Aristotle seems to have avoided the use of ekthesis as much as possible in his syllogistic theory, he did not manage to eliminate it completely. The likely reason for his aversion is that the method involved considering particulars and not merely general concepts. This was foreign to Aristotle’s way of thinking, according to which particulars can be grasped by sense perception but not by pure thought.

While the medieval names of the moods contain a great deal of information, they provide no way by themselves to determine to which figure a mood belongs and so no way to reconstruct the actual form of the syllogism. Mnemonic verses were developed in the Middle Ages for this purpose.

Categorical propositions in which α is merely said to belong (or not) to some or every β are called assertoric categorical propositions; syllogisms composed solely of such categoricals are called assertoric syllogisms. Aristotle was also interested in categoricals in which α is said to belong (or not) necessarily or possibly to some or every β. Such categoricals are called modal categoricals, and syllogisms in which the component categoricals are modal are called modal syllogisms (they are sometimes called “mixed” if only one of the premises is modal).

Aristotle discussed two notions of the “possible”: (1) as what is not impossible (i.e., the opposite of which is not necessary) and (2) as what is neither necessary nor impossible (i.e., the contingent). In his modal syllogistic, the term “possible” (or “contingent”) is always used in sense 2 in syllogistic premises, but it is sometimes used in sense 1 in syllogistic conclusions if a conclusion in sense 2 would be incorrect.

Aristotle’s procedure in his modal syllogistic is to survey each valid mood of the assertoric syllogistic and then to test the several modal syllogisms that can be formed from an assertoric mood by changing one or more of its component categoricals into a modal categorical. The interpretation of this part of Aristotle’s logic and the correctness of his arguments have been disputed since antiquity.

Aristotle’s logic presupposes several principles that he did not explicitly formulate about logical relations between any propositions whatever, independent of the propositions’ internal analyses into categorical or any other form. For example, it presupposes that the principle “If p then q; but p; therefore q” (where p and q are replaced by any propositions) is valid. Such patterns of inference belong to what is called the logic of propositions. Aristotle’s logic is, by contrast, a logic of terms in the sense described above. A sustained study of the logic of propositions came only after Aristotle.

Aristotle’s approach to logic differs from the modern one in various ways. Perhaps the most general difference is that Aristotle did not consider verbs for being, such as einai, as ambiguous between the senses of identity (“Coriscus is Socrates”), predication (“Socrates is mortal”), existence (“Socrates is”), and subsumption (“Socrates is a man”), which in modern logic are expressed by means of different symbols or symbol combinations. In the Metaphysics, Aristotle wrote:

One man and a man are the same thing and existent man and a man are the same thing, and the doubling of words in “one man” and “one existent man” does not give any new meaning (it is clear that they are not separated either in coming to be or in ceasing to be); and similarly with “one.”

Aristotle’s refusal to recognize distinct senses of being led him into difficulties. In some cases the trouble lay in the fact that the verbs of different senses behave differently. Thus, whereas being in the sense of identity is always transitive, being in the sense of predication sometimes is not. If A is identical to B and B is identical to C, it follows that A is identical to C. But if Socrates is human and humanity is numerous, it does not follow that Socrates is numerous. In order to cope with these problems, Aristotle was forced to conclude that on different occasions some senses of einai may be absent, depending on the context. In a syllogistic premise, the context includes the two terms occurring in it. Thus, whether “every B is A” has the force “every B is an existent A” (or, “every B is an A and A exists”) depends on what A is and what can be known about it. Thus, existence was not a distinct predicate for Aristotle, though it could be part of the force of the predicate term.

In a chain of syllogisms, existential force, or the presumption of existence, flows “downward” from wider and more general terms to narrower ones. Hence, in any syllogistically organized science, it is necessary to assume the existence of only the widest term (the generic term) by which the field of the science is delineated. For all other terms of the science, existence can be proved syllogistically.

Aristotle’s treatment of existence illustrates the sense in which his logic is a logic of terms. Even existential force is carried not by the quantifiers alone but also, in the context of a syllogistically organized science, by the predicate terms contained in the syllogistic premises.

Another distinctive feature of Aristotle’s way of thinking about logical matters is that for him the typical sentences to which logical rules are supposed to apply are temporally indefinite. A sentence such as “Socrates is sitting,” for example, involves an implicit reference to the moment of utterance (“Socrates is now sitting”), so the same sentence can be both true at one moment and false at another, depending on what Socrates happens to be doing at the time in question. This variability in truth or falsehood is not found in sentences that make explicit reference to an absolute chronology, as does “Socrates is sitting at 12 noon on June 1, 400 bce.”

Aristotle’s conception of logical sentences as temporally indefinite helps explain the intriguing discussion in chapter 9 of De interpretatione concerning whether true statements about the future—e.g., “There will be a sea battle tomorrow”—are necessarily true (because all events in the world are determined by a series of efficient causes). Aristotle’s answer has been interpreted in many ways, but the simplest interpretation is to take him to be saying that, understood as a temporally indefinite statement about the future, “there will be a sea battle tomorrow,” even if true at a certain time of utterance, is not necessary, because at some other time of utterance it might have been false. However, understood as a temporally definite statement—e.g., as equivalent to “there will be a sea battle on June 1, 400 bce”—it is necessarily true if it is true at all, because the battle, like all events in the history of the universe, was causally determined to occur at that particular time. As Aristotle expressed the point, “What is, necessarily is when it is; but that is not to say that what is, necessarily is without qualification [haplos].”