Recipes for cookies (called biscuits or sweet biscuits in some countries) are probably more variable than those for any other type of bakery product. Some layer-cake batters can be used for soft drop cookies, but most cookie formulas contain considerably less water than cake recipes, and cookies are baked to a lower moisture content than any normal cake. With the exception of soft types, the moisture content of cookies will be below 5 percent after baking, resulting in crisp texture and good storage stability.

Cookies are generally high in shortening and sugar. Milk and eggs are not common ingredients in commercial cookies but may be used in home recipes. Sugar granule size has a pronounced effect on cookie texture, influencing spread and expansion during baking, an effect partly caused by competition for the limited water content between the slowly dissolving sugar and the gluten of the flour.

Mixing

The horizontal dough mixers used for yeast-leavened products may be used for mixing chemically leavened doughs and batters. Mixers may be the batch type, similar in configuration to the household mixer, with large steel bowls, open at the top, containing the batter while it is mixed or whipped by beater paddles of various conformations. In continuous mixers the batter is pumped through an enclosed chamber while a toothed disk rapidly rotates and mixes the ingredients. The chambers may be pressurized to force gas into the batter and surrounded with a flowing heat-transfer medium to adjust the temperature.

Sheeting and cutting

Chemically leavened doughs can be formed by methods similar to those used for yeast-leavened doughs of similar consistency. In the usual sequence, the dough passes between sets of rollers, forming sheets of uniform thickness; the desired outline is cut in the sheet by stamping pressure or embossed rollers; and the scrap dough is removed for reprocessing. Many cookies and crackers are made in this way, and designs may be impressed in the dough pieces by docking pins (used primarily to puncture the sheet, preventing formation of excessively large gas bubbles) or by cutting edges partially penetrating the dough pieces.

Die forming and extruding

In addition to the sheeting and cutting methods, cookies may be shaped by die forming and extrusion. In die forming a dough casing may be applied around a centre portion of jam or other material, forming products such as fig bars; or portions of dough may be deposited, forming such drop-type cookies as vanilla wafers, chocolate chip, and oatmeal cookies. Extrusion is accomplished by means of a die plate having orifices that may be circular, rectangular, or complex in outline. The mass of dough, contained in a hopper, is pushed through these openings, forming long strands of dough. Individual cookies are formed by separating pieces from the dough strand with a wire passing across the outer surface of the die or by pulling apart the hopper and oven belt (to which the dough adheres).

Rotary molding

Cookies produced on rotary molders include sandwich-base cakes and pieces made with embossed designs. A steel cylinder, the surface covered with shallow engraved cavities, rotates past the opening in a hopper filled with cookie dough. The pockets are filled with the dough, which is sheared off from the main mass by a blade, and, as the cylinder continues its revolution, the dough pieces are ejected onto a conveyor belt leading to the band oven.

Baking

Most commercial ovens for chemically leavened products are the band types, although reel ovens are still used, especially in smaller shops or bakeries where short runs are frequent.

Foams and sponges

The albumen of egg white, a protein solution, foams readily when whipped. The highly extended structure has little strength and must be supported during baking by some other protein substance, usually the gluten of flour. Because the small amount of lipids in flour tend to collapse the albumen foam, flour is gently folded into egg white foams, minimizing contact of fatty substances with the protein. Gluten sponges are denser than the lightest egg-white foams but are less subject to fat collapse.

The foam of egg yolks and whole eggs, as in pound cakes, is an air-in-oil emulsion. Proteins and starch, scattered throughout the emulsion in a dispersed condition, gradually coalesce as the batter stands or is heated. Fats and oils, in addition to yolk lipids, can be added to such systems without causing complete collapse but never achieve the low density possible with protein foams and usually have a tender, crumbly texture, unlike the more elastic structure of albumen-based products.