Jewish

The era at present in vogue among the Jews, counted from the creation of the world (anno mundi; abbreviated to am), came into popular use about the 9th century ad. Traceable in dates recorded much earlier, this era has five styles conventionally indicated by Hebrew letters used as numerals and combined into mnemonics, which state the times of occurrence of the epochal mean conjunctions of moladim (see calendar: The Jewish calendar) or the orders of intercalation in the 19-year cycle or both. The respective epochs of these styles fall in the years 3762–3758 bc, inclusive. By about the 12th century ad the second of the mentioned styles, that which is in use at present, superseded the other styles of the era anno mundi.

The styles of this era arise from variations in the conventional rabbinical computation of the era of the creation. This computation, like hundreds of other calculations even more variable and no less arbitrary, is founded on synchronisms of chronological elements expressed in the terms of biblical and early postbiblical Jewish eras.

The biblical era anno mundi underlies the dating of events (mainly in the book of Genesis) prior to the Exodus from Egypt. This period of biblical chronology abounds in intractable problems caused by discrepancies between the Jewish and Samaritan Hebrew texts and the Greek version known as the Septuagint, by apparent inconsistencies in some of the synchronisms, and by uncertainties about the method of reckoning.

During the period from the Exodus to the founding of Solomon’s Temple, the only continuous biblical era (chiefly in the remaining books of the Pentateuch) is the era of the Exodus. With regard to a crucial date expressed in this era—“In the four hundred and eightieth year after the people of Israel came out of the land of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign over Israel, in the month of Ziv, which is the second month, he began to build the house of the Lord” (I Kings 6:1)—there is again a discrepancy between the Hebrew text and the Septuagint. Other problems to be met with during this period are due to the obscurity of chronological data in the book of Judges and in I and II Samuel.

During the following period, the Bible uses the eras of the regnal years of monarchs (the kings of Judah, Israel, and Babylon) and of the Babylonian Exile. This period of biblical chronology likewise poses numerous problems, also the result of apparent inconsistencies of the synchronisms—e.g., in the period from the accession of Rehoboam of Judah and of Jeroboam of Israel to the fall of Samaria “in the sixth year of Hezekiah [of Judah], which was the ninth year of Hoshea king of Israel” (II Kings 18:10) the reigns of the southern kingdom exceed those of the northern kingdom by 25 years.

The biblical data might be easier to harmonize if the occurrence of coregencies were assumed. Yet, as an ever-variable factor, these evidently would not lead to the determination of the true chronology of this period. Scholars therefore seek additional information from sources outside the Bible—e.g., inscriptions on Assyrian monuments, which are dated by the so-called eponym lists. Substantial use also has been made of the data in the king list known as Ptolemy’s Canon (compiled in the 2nd Christian century) commencing in 747 bc with the reigns of the Babylonian kings (see above Babylonian and Assyrian). Scholars differ widely, however, in their interpretation of details, and numerous chronological problems remain unsolved. Only a few dates in this period can be fixed with any degree of confidence.

After the Babylonian Exile, as evidenced by the data in the Bible and the Aswān papyri, the Jews reckoned by the years of the Persian kings. The chronological problems of this period are caused by the apparent disorder in the sequence of events related in the biblical books of Ezra and Nehemiah and by the difficulty of identifying some of the Persian kings in question. For example, the King Artaxerxes of these books may stand for Artaxerxes I Longimanus (465–425 bc), for Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359/358 bc), or in the case of Ezra at any rate, for Artaxerxes III Ochus (359/358–338/337 bc).

From the Grecian period onward, Jews used the Seleucid era (especially in dating deeds; hence its name Minyan Sheṭarot, or “Era of Contracts”). In vogue in the East until the 16th century, this was the only popular Jewish era of antiquity to survive. The others soon became extinct. These included, among others, national eras dating (1) from the accession of the Hasmonean princes (e.g., Simon the Hasmonean in 143/142 bc) and (2) from the anti-Roman risings (“era of the Redemption of Zion”) in the years 66 and 131 of the Common (Christian) Era. Dates have also been reckoned from the destruction of the Second Temple (le-ḥurban ha-Bayit). The various styles of the latter, as also of the Seleucid era and of the era anno mundi, have often led to erroneous conversions of dates. The respective general styles of these eras correlate as follows: 3830 am = year 381 of the Seleucid era = year 1 of the Era of the Destruction = year 69/70 of the Common (Christian) Era.

The earliest Jewish chronologies have not survived. Of the work of the Alexandrian Jew Demetrius (3rd century bc), which deduced Jewish historical dates from the Scriptures, only a few fragments are extant. In the Book of Jubilees, events from the creation to the Exodus are dated in jubilee and sabbatical cycles of 49 and 7 years, respectively. Scholars differ as to the date and origin of this book. The era of the creation therein is unlikely to have been other than hypothetical.

The earliest and most important of all Jewish chronologies extant is the Seder ʿolam rabbaʾ (“Order of the World”), transmitted, according to Talmudic tradition, by Rabbi Yosi ben Halafta in the 2nd century ad. The author was possibly the first to use the rabbinic Era of the Creation. His chronology extends from the creation to Bar Kokhba in the days of the Roman emperor Hadrian (2nd century ad); but the period from Nehemiah to Bar Kokhba (i.e., from Artaxerxes I or II to Hadrian) is compressed into one single chapter. The Persian phase shrinks to a mere 54 years. The smaller work Seder ʿOlam zuṭaʾ completes the Rabbaʾ. It aims to show the Babylonian exilarchs as lineal descendants of David.

Megillat taʿanit (“Scroll of Fasting”), although recording only the days and months of the year without the dates of the years, is nevertheless an important source for Jewish chronology. It lists events on 35 days of the year that have been identified with events in five chronological periods: (1) pre-Hasmonean, (2) Hasmonean, (3) Roman (up to ad 65), (4) the war against Rome (65–66), and (5) miscellaneous. The authors, or rather the last revisers, are identified with Zealots guided by Hananiah ben Hezekiah ben Gurion and his son Eliezer.