digital divide
- Related Topics:
- social differentiation
digital divide, term that describes the uneven distribution of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in society. The digital divide encompasses differences in both access (first-level digital divide) and usage (second-level digital divide) of computers and the Internet between (1) industrialized and developing countries (global divide), (2) various socioeconomic groups within single nation-states (social divide), and (3) different kinds of users with regard to their political engagement on the Internet (democratic divide). In general, those differences are believed to reinforce social inequalities and to cause a persisting information or knowledge gap amid those people with access to and using the new media (“haves”) and those people without (“have-nots”).
The digital divide metaphor became popular in the mid-1990s, when the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) of the U.S. Department of Commerce published “Falling Through the Net: A Survey of the ‘Have Nots’ in Rural and Urban America” (1995), a research report on Internet diffusion among Americans. The report revealed widespread inequalities in national ICT access, with migrant or ethnic minority groups and older, less-affluent people living in rural areas with low educational attainments being especially excluded from Internet services. That pattern was confirmed by follow-up surveys by the NTIA, which indicated also an initial gender gap in favour of men.
Although diffusion rates of the Internet subsequently rose in all groups, subsequent studies showed a perpetuating digital divide both in the United States and abroad. Some common characteristics emerged. In single nation-states, access to and usage of computer technology was stratified by age, education, ethnicity, race, family structure, gender, income, occupation, and place of residence. In that way, affluent young urban men and women with high levels of education who lived in small families with children were the greatest adopters of new media. Such people are most likely to possess ICTs (material or physical access), the experience and skills necessary to use the Internet (skills access), and sufficient free time to spend online (usage access). Here, Internet usage among advantaged groups includes searching for information to address professional or political interests. On the contrary, many people from less-advantaged groups have been shown to lack those basic navigation skills and to prefer entertainment on the Internet instead.
On the global level, additional factors such as per capita gross domestic product, international trade volume, degree of democratization, deregulation of the telecommunications market, density of communication infrastructure, and investments in research and development also influence Internet diffusion. Thus, industrial societies are more prone to implement new technologies than less-developed countries. For example, by 2012 the greatest intensity of national ICT access and usage had occurred in South Korea, Japan, and northern Europe.
Over time, the global digital divide has remained relatively stable. Yet, in single nation-states some gaps in ICT access and usage have slowly begun to fade. The early differences between men and women and between rural and urban areas of Western residences subsided, possibly due to extended telecommunications networks, lowered entry barriers, and additional ICT experiences at work. Other initial inequalities caused by factors such as age, education, ethnicity and race, and income, however, continued.
Those divergent developments and the various types of ICT access and usage encountered in single countries led some researchers to criticize the original description of a digital divide. In their opinion, the metaphor wrongly implies a binary construction of “haves” and “have-nots” on the basis of the simple notion of absolute and insurmountable class differences in technology. Alternatively, they postulate “digital inequality” as a gradual concept and therefore advocate multidimensional measures of Internet connectedness that take into account the history and context of Internet use, its scope and intensity, and, finally, the centrality of ICTs in people’s lives.
Similarly, policy initiatives conducted by supranational organizations (e.g., European Union and the United Nations), national governments, and private enterprises have been expanded to ameliorate worldwide differences in ICT usage. Although initially concentrating on mere improvement of technical access to computers and the Internet in rural areas and public institutions (e.g., in libraries and schools), projects designed to close the digital divide have shifted to also include civic information campaigns and ICT courses for specific user groups.
