Weak or failed states often serve as an impetus for ethnic conflict. Many times such states are artificial products (e.g., former colonies) that were created without regard for the existing ethnic and political divisions within their borders, and their political and legal institutions tend to be ineffective. Violent conflicts are likely if changes in the economic situation of a state (e.g., cuts in foreign aid, corruption, administrative incompetence, and the inability to promote economic stability) are associated with the deterioration of the political situation in the country and the mobilization of ethnic groups. Group rivalry can lead to military mobilization, which leads to general armament of all ethnic groups within the state. That causes a security dilemma: by making efforts to provide a means with which to defend themselves, ethnic groups often threaten the security of others, whose reactions to that threat may, in turn, increase the threat level faced by the original group or groups. Violent conflicts and internal security dilemmas lead to massive human-rights violations, refugee flows, and spillover effects with the potential to destabilize whole regions.

Ethnic geography—the geographic distribution and territorial concentration of ethnic groups in pluralistic states—also contributes to the likelihood of violent ethnic conflict. Ethnic conflict is particularly common in states with territorially concentrated ethnic groups located near a border or with ethnic kin in an adjacent state. Those groups show high levels of organization and increased group cohesion and are able to use shared homelands as a territorial base for their political struggle.

Political factors

Ethnic conflict is particularly likely in states where ethnic groups lack sufficient representation in public and political institutions. Authoritarian one-party regimes with discriminatory legislation and a lack of opportunities for ethnic groups to participate in state decision-making processes are particularly prone to ethnic conflict. Liberal democracies that focus on the ideals of inclusion, political debate, and the attempt to reach consensus among all participants in the political process facilitate nonviolent ethnopolitical action and are thus less likely to experience rebellion or uprisings.

Exclusionary national ideologies may also serve as a source of conflict. Nationalism and, in an increased form, citizenship based on ethnic distinctions are especially dangerous because such ideologies tend to flourish in situations of political uncertainty and economic collapse. Other forms of exclusionary national ideologies include religious fundamentalism and supremacist fascist expressions.

The existence, or lack of existence, of stable domestic intergroup relations can also have a bearing on whether violent ethnic conflict is likely to occur. Violent conflict is particularly probable if the claims of the various ethnic groups are incongruous, if groups have strength and are organized, if it is possible for groups to take action, if success is a feasible outcome, and if there is a tangible fear of suppression and discrimination on the basis of ethnicity.

The tactics that may be utilized by leaders and elites during political turmoil also affect the likelihood of violent ethnic conflict. Scapegoating, hate speech, and manipulation of the mass media are means that have the potential to heighten existing discord between ethnic groups.

Economic and social factors

Economic problems such as slowdowns, stagnation, deterioration, and complete collapse are sources of state destabilization and can lead to increased tensions and competition among ethnic groups. Discriminatory economic systems in which various groups are faced with inequitable options (in terms of economic opportunities, access to land and other resources, standards of living, and the like) generate resentment and also contribute to tensions and destabilization. Fast economic transitions (e.g., from centrally planned to market economies) and development can also aggravate instability by creating favourable conditions for domestic migration, urbanization, and other societal changes to which the existing political and social structures might not be able to adapt. These changes also can raise hopes for economic and political gains that might not come to fruition and might then serve as a source of frustration.

Cultural or perceptual factors

Cultural factors such as problematic group histories, stereotypical perceptions, and grievances over cultural discrimination—including limitations on religious and cultural practices, unequal educational opportunities, and restrictions on the use of minority languages—are common causes of ethnic conflict. In addition, a weakening of traditional forms of dispute settlement (such as a council of elders) changes the environment for the resolution of ethnic disputes.

Internal mass-level factors

Internal mass-level factors may include fast-paced economic changes, modernization, patterns of political or economic discrimination, and internal migration. Brown deems those “bad domestic problems.”

External mass-level factors

“Bad neighborhoods,” according to Brown, are created when radicalized politics in a region lead to contagion, diffusion, and spillover effects (external mass-level causes). Those effects can also occur when refugees or fighters from neighbouring countries cross the border and bring violence and unrest with them.

External elite-level factors

External elite-level factors exist when governments make decisions to provoke conflicts in weak neighbouring states for political, economic, security, or ideological reasons, leading to Brown’s label “bad neighbors.” In addition, in some cases, ethnic minorities decide to wage a violent struggle in the hope of political gains and international support. Ethnic groups assume the willingness of the international community to react and to provide a political forum to support negotiation, arbitration, and the settlement of disputes.

Internal elite-level factors

Brown uses the term “bad leaders” to refer to internal elite-level factors. Those include power struggles by leaders of different groups, ideological disputes over the way a country should be organized, and criminal activity directed against a country’s sovereignty by leaders of organized crime. Leaders have the ability to “play the ethnic card”—to invoke ethnicity in situations where it may or may not be relevant—in a manner that can quickly lead to increased tensions between ethnic groups.